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Vietnam War Asbestos Exposure

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Vietnam War Asbestos Exposure
Key facts for Vietnam-era veterans (1955-1975)
Conflict Vietnam War (1955-1975)
U.S. Personnel ~2.7 million served in-theater
Peak Troop Strength 543,482 (April 30, 1969)
Unique Factor Peak U.S. asbestos consumption era
Peak Consumption 803,000 metric tons (1973)
First Helicopter War UH-1 Huey contained asbestos exhaust gaskets
Key Exposure Sites Air bases, ships, vehicles, bases
VA Disability Rating 100% for mesothelioma
Monthly Compensation $3,938.58 (single, 2026)
Free Vietnam Veteran Case Review →

Vietnam War Asbestos Exposure: The Peak Consumption Era and Military Mesothelioma Risk

Vietnam War asbestos exposure is distinguished from all other wartime exposures by a single defining fact: the conflict unfolded during the absolute peak of United States asbestos consumption. Approximately 2.7 million American military personnel served in the Vietnam theater of operations between 1955 and 1975, a period when the nation consumed a record 803,000 metric tons of asbestos in 1973 alone — the highest single-year total in American history.[1][2] Every branch of the military procured equipment, vehicles, aircraft, and construction materials from civilian manufacturers who were incorporating asbestos-containing products at historically unprecedented levels. Unlike World War II, where asbestos required special government conservation orders to prioritize military supply, by the Vietnam era asbestos was simply ubiquitous in standard manufacturing — no special wartime procurement was needed because it was already embedded in virtually everything the military purchased.[1][3]

The Vietnam War introduced exposure pathways that were unique among American conflicts. It was the first major war fought primarily with helicopters — the UH-1 "Huey" alone contained asbestos exhaust gaskets confirmed by both VA Board of Veterans' Appeals case records and the Lycoming engine technical manual.[4] Vietnam's tropical climate, characterized by extreme heat, humidity exceeding 80%, and monsoon rainfall, accelerated the degradation of asbestos-containing materials at rates far exceeding those in temperate environments.[5][6] More than 25,000 Navy Seabees built installations using peak-era construction materials saturated with asbestos fibers.[7] While Agent Orange exposure has dominated Vietnam-era health research, asbestos exposure represents a parallel and largely underexamined occupational hazard now producing mesothelioma diagnoses decades later.[8] Vietnam-era veterans diagnosed with mesothelioma qualify for VA disability benefits of $3,938.58 per month (2026 rate), asbestos trust fund claims, and civil lawsuits against manufacturers who supplied the military during the peak consumption years.[9][10]

Vietnam War asbestos exposure at a glance:

  • 803,000 metric tons — peak U.S. asbestos consumption in 1973, during active combat operations in Vietnam[1]
  • 2.7 million — U.S. military personnel who served in the Vietnam theater of operations[2]
  • 543,482 — peak U.S. troop strength in Vietnam, reached on April 30, 1969[2]
  • Over 300 products — number of ship components and parts containing asbestos in Korean and Vietnam War-era naval vessels[11]
  • 17 attack carriers and 4 ASW carriers — deployed to Vietnamese waters at Yankee and Dixie Stations between 1964 and 1973[12]
  • 25,000+ Seabees — served in Vietnam, constructing installations with asbestos-containing materials during the peak consumption era[7]
  • Over 600 M48 Patton tanks — deployed to South Vietnam, all with asbestos brake and clutch components[13]
  • 100% — VA disability rating for mesothelioma, providing $3,938.58/month for single veterans (2026)[9]
  • 60+ trust funds — with $30+ billion remaining for asbestos victims, many from manufacturers that supplied Vietnam-era military equipment[10]
  • PACT Act (August 10, 2022) — has improved access to VA benefits for veterans with toxic exposure-related conditions, including those diagnosed with mesothelioma[14]
  • 20 to 50 years — mesothelioma latency period, meaning Vietnam-era exposures (1955-1975) are producing diagnoses through 2025 and beyond[15]

Key Facts

Metric Finding
Conflict Duration 1955-1975 (U.S. major combat involvement 1965-1973)
Peak Asbestos Year 1973 — U.S. consumed 803,000 metric tons, the highest single-year consumption in American history[1]
Personnel Exposed ~2.7 million U.S. military personnel served in Vietnam[2]
Peak Troop Strength 543,482 personnel on April 30, 1969[2]
Branch Breakdown Army (1,736,000), Marines (391,000), Air Force (293,000), Navy/Coast Guard (174,000)[2]
Key Aircraft UH-1 Huey (asbestos exhaust gaskets confirmed by VA), F-4 Phantom II, B-52, C-130, CH-47 Chinook[4][16]
Key Vehicles M113 APC (most widely used), M48 Patton (600+ deployed), M551, M35 — asbestos in brakes, clutches, gaskets[13][3]
Major Air Bases Da Nang (busiest single-runway airport in the world by mid-1960s), Bien Hoa, Tan Son Nhut, Cam Ranh Bay[17]
Naval Operations 17 attack carriers at Yankee/Dixie Station; brown water navy patrols; 300+ asbestos-containing ship products[12][11]
Tropical Factor Heat, humidity, and monsoon conditions accelerated asbestos degradation far beyond temperate rates[5]
VA Disability (100%) $3,938.58/month (single) or $4,158.17/month (married) in 2026[9]
PACT Act Signed August 10, 2022 — improved access to VA benefits for toxic exposure-related conditions including mesothelioma[14]

Historical Context: Why Was Asbestos Pervasive During the Vietnam Era?

The Vietnam War unfolded during the absolute apex of American asbestos consumption — a convergence of military demand and industrial output that made asbestos exposure virtually unavoidable for the 2.7 million personnel who served in-theater. The United States produced approximately 3.29 million metric tons and consumed approximately 31.5 million metric tons of asbestos between 1900 and 2003, and about half of this total was consumed after 1960.[1] Annual consumption rose from approximately 643,000 metric tons in 1960 to a record 803,000 metric tons in 1973, then declined to approximately 552,000 metric tons by 1975 as the first regulatory restrictions took effect.[1][18] The United States was 94% import-dependent for asbestos throughout this period, with Canada supplying approximately 94% of U.S. imports.[1]

The Department of Defense procured aircraft, vehicles, ships, and construction materials from civilian manufacturers who were using asbestos at historically unprecedented levels during the Vietnam buildup. Unlike WWII, where the government issued Conservation Orders M-79 and M-123 to restrict civilian asbestos use and prioritize military supply, by the Vietnam era asbestos was so pervasive in standard manufacturing that no special procurement was necessary. Military specifications (MIL-SPECs) for fireproofing, insulation, and heat resistance effectively mandated asbestos use in everything from aircraft brake pads to building insulation. All five branches of the military relied on asbestos-containing products from the 1930s until the late 1970s, with some military applications continuing as late as 1991.[3][11]

The regulatory timeline illustrates how late meaningful protections arrived. The Clean Air Act of 1970 declared all asbestos fibers toxic. The EPA classified asbestos as a hazardous air pollutant in 1971, and the first National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) rules were established.[19][11] In 1973 — the very year asbestos consumption peaked — the EPA banned asbestos-containing sprays for fireproofing. In 1975, the EPA banned pre-formed and wet-applied asbestos pipe insulation.[20] OSHA was not established until 1970, and its first asbestos workplace standard (1972) had limited enforcement reach, particularly for military installations and overseas operations. By the late 1970s, the Navy began a concerted effort to limit asbestos exposure, but manufacturers resisted substitution due to higher costs for replacement materials.[21]

The comparison across American conflicts underscores the Vietnam era's unique position. During WWII, the United States consumed approximately 60% of world asbestos production, primarily for shipbuilding. During the Korean War (1950-1953), consumption remained elevated but transitional. By the Vietnam era, asbestos had permeated every sector of military manufacturing — aerospace, vehicles, construction, electronics, and textiles. The war did not create the asbestos crisis; it placed 2.7 million Americans inside one during the worst possible decade.[1][2] After 1975, consumption declined precipitously: by 2000 it had fallen to approximately 15,000 tons, and by 2023 the United States consumed an estimated 150 metric tons.[1][22] But the damage was done. With mesothelioma latency periods of 20 to 50 years, Vietnam-era diagnoses are occurring now and will continue through the mid-2030s.[15]

How Were Veterans Exposed to Asbestos During Vietnam?

The U.S. Navy's Vietnam operations placed tens of thousands of sailors aboard vessels built during eras when asbestos was standard in naval construction. Between 1964 and 1973, 17 attack carriers and 4 antisubmarine carriers deployed to Vietnamese waters as part of Task Force 77, operating from Yankee Station north of the DMZ and Dixie Station off the Mekong Delta.[12] Nearly every U.S. Navy ship commissioned from 1930 to 1970 contained several tons of asbestos insulation, and over 300 ship products or parts built during the Korean and Vietnam War eras contained asbestos — including adhesives, bedding compounds, cables, caulk, floor tiles, gaskets, insulation, packing, paneling, piping, thermal materials, tubing, and valves.[23] Sailors lived and worked around the clock in these vessels, eating, sleeping, and standing watch in spaces insulated with asbestos-containing materials that released fibers through normal wear, vibration, and maintenance activities.[21] Gearing-class destroyers such as USS Power (DD-839), which deployed to the Western Pacific during the Vietnam era, exemplified the asbestos hazards aboard smaller combatants — their engine rooms, boiler rooms, and piping systems all relied on asbestos insulation in the confined below-deck spaces where crews routinely worked.[24] Among the larger carriers, USS Coral Sea (CVA-43) was constructed at Newport News Shipbuilding between 1944 and 1947 with heavy asbestos insulation throughout, served multiple Vietnam deployments including Operation Frequent Wind during the Fall of Saigon evacuation in 1975, and was ultimately scrapped in Baltimore over a seven-year process from 1993 to 2000 — the largest warship ever scrapped at that time — generating prolonged asbestos exposure for shipbreaking workers decades after her combat service ended.[25]

The brown water Navy created a distinct Vietnam-era exposure pathway. The River Patrol Force (Task Force 116) deployed approximately 250 Patrol Boat, River (PBR) craft beginning in March 1966, patrolling the Mekong Delta, the Rung Sat Special Zone, and the Saigon River.[26] While these small rigid-hulled boats contained less asbestos than large warships, repair ships operating in-theater generated significant exposure. The USS Krishna (ARL-38), an Achelous-class landing craft repair ship built during WWII with extensive asbestos insulation, earned 12 battle stars for Vietnam service. She operated as a repair facility, fueling station, and command center for Coast Guard Squadron One at An Thoi Naval Base from September 1965 through June 1971.[27] Maintenance and repair operations aboard the Krishna and similar vessels involved cutting, removing, and replacing asbestos-containing components in the tropical heat — generating concentrated fiber exposure for repair crews working in confined shipboard spaces.[21]

Vietnam's tropical climate compounded shipboard asbestos hazards. Temperatures regularly exceeding 95 degrees Fahrenheit, combined with humidity above 80%, created conditions that accelerated the degradation of asbestos insulation on steam pipes, boilers, and bulkheads. Heat cycling between extreme daytime temperatures and cooler nights caused expansion and contraction that cracked asbestos-containing materials, releasing fibers into enclosed compartments where ventilation systems already struggled in the tropical conditions.[5][11]

Deeper Insight: Over 300 ship products and parts in Korean and Vietnam War-era vessels contained asbestos. Carriers operating at Yankee and Dixie Stations deployed continuously for months, meaning sailors lived in asbestos-insulated environments for extended periods. Johns-Manville was contracted to manufacture asbestos-containing insulation for nearly every ship in the U.S. Navy, and EaglePicher Industries supplied asbestos-containing insulating materials used on Navy ships, continuing military supply until the 1970s.[23][28][29]

See full analysis: Navy_Asbestos_Exposure

Air Base Operations and Aircraft Maintenance

The Vietnam War was the first major conflict in which helicopters served as the primary tactical platform, and this distinction created an asbestos exposure pathway unprecedented in military history. The UH-1 "Huey" helicopter was the workhorse of the war, and a VA Board of Veterans' Appeals case file documents that the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command Safety Office confirmed that even if aircraft left the manufacturer asbestos-free, "routine maintenance may have inserted asbestos-containing parts." A Lycoming engine technical manual was identified indicating asbestos was present in exhaust gaskets during the Vietnam era.[4] Field maintenance and engine overhauls on Hueys and other helicopters, including the CH-47 Chinook (documented in VA claims as containing asbestos brake pads, O-rings, and fire blankets), generated asbestos dust in open-air tropical conditions where respiratory protection was neither available nor required.[30]

Fixed-wing aircraft used in Vietnam were equally dependent on asbestos components. The F-4 Phantom II, B-52 Stratofortress, C-130 Hercules, and other aircraft contained asbestos in brake systems (16% to 23% asbestos by weight), engine heat shields, and gaskets.[16][31] Da Nang Air Base was the most northerly major USAF base in South Vietnam and by the mid-1960s was the busiest single-runway airport in the world, with approximately 1,500 takeoffs and landings on peak traffic days. By 1968, monthly fixed-wing takeoffs and landings exceeded 55,000, and with helicopter activities added, the figure approached 67,000.[17] This operational tempo demanded constant aircraft maintenance — brake pad replacements, engine gasket work, and heat shield repairs — all of which disturbed asbestos fibers. Other major USAF bases in South Vietnam included Bien Hoa, Tan Son Nhut, Cam Ranh Bay, and Phu Cat, while Thailand-based operations at Nakhon Phanom, U-Tapao, and Korat also supported the air war.[17][32]

Aircraft maintenance in Vietnam was performed under austere field conditions without the dust control equipment available at stateside facilities. Mechanics worked directly with asbestos-containing brake pads, gaskets, and heat shielding in open-air hangars or on flight lines in tropical heat. No documentation was found of systematic asbestos exposure monitoring for aircraft maintenance workers during the Vietnam era. The VA Board of Veterans' Appeals case notes confirm that "Technical Manuals during that period did not show asbestos as a component but asbestos was not known as a serious hazard at that time."[4][16]

Deeper Insight: Vietnam was the first helicopter war. The UH-1 Huey contained confirmed asbestos exhaust gaskets per VA records and Lycoming manual documentation. A peer-reviewed letter in Occupational and Environmental Medicine confirmed that asbestos-containing materials were used extensively in aircraft construction, with brake systems containing 16% to 23% asbestos by weight.[4][31]

See full analysis: Air_Force_Asbestos_Exposure

Vehicle and Equipment Maintenance

The U.S. Army deployed over 600 M48 Patton tanks to South Vietnam, where they were used extensively for road clearance, convoy security, fire support, and jungle operations requiring frequent brake and component maintenance in field conditions.[13] The M113 Armored Personnel Carrier was the most widely used armored vehicle of the U.S. Army in the Vietnam War.[3] From the 1930s to the early 1980s, the U.S. Army used asbestos in barracks, vehicles, and weapons systems, and brake and clutch components in military vehicles routinely contained asbestos fibers for heat and friction resistance.[33] Standard military vehicle types in Vietnam — M48 Patton tanks, M113 APCs, M551 Sheridans, M35 trucks, and M151 MUTTs — all relied on asbestos-containing friction materials in their brake and clutch systems.[20][11]

Vehicle maintenance in Vietnam was performed by Army and Marine mechanics in motor pools, forward operating bases, and combat firebases under tropical field conditions. Brake and clutch repair required direct handling of asbestos-containing components, and compressed air was commonly used to blow dust from brake drums and clutch housings, creating clouds of asbestos-laden dust. The heavy operational tempo of the war — convoy operations, road clearance missions, and the constant demands of combat logistics — required frequent brake and component replacements that were performed without respiratory protection or dust control measures.[11][20]

Base Construction and Facilities

The U.S. military built an enormous infrastructure in Vietnam between 1965 and 1972, and all of it was constructed during the peak asbestos consumption era. Long Binh Post was the largest U.S. Army base in Vietnam, with a peak of 60,000 personnel in 1969 and initial construction costs of approximately $130 million.[34] Cam Ranh Bay became one of the largest logistics hubs in the Republic of Vietnam after the U.S. Army 35th Engineer Construction Group began building roads and infrastructure in mid-1965, with DeLong piers installed and a new 10,000-foot concrete runway constructed by 1966.[35] More than 25,000 Navy Seabees worked in Vietnam during the war, constructing airfields, ports, hospitals, and other infrastructure using materials that routinely contained asbestos fibers for tensile strength, fire resistance, and sound deadening.[7]

Standard 1960s-era construction materials used in Vietnam included asbestos cement roofing and siding (Transite), asbestos floor tiles, asbestos-containing insulation, asbestos pipe wrapping, and asbestos-containing joint compounds. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' own asbestos abatement guideline detail sheets document the presence of asbestos in pipe insulation, boiler insulation, gaskets, electrical wiring insulation, and flooring in military facilities — all materials that were standard construction practice during the Vietnam era.[33][11] As bases were expanded, relocated, or decommissioned, demolition and remodeling of structures containing these materials created additional exposure events, and the rapid pace of construction and demolition in a combat zone meant no asbestos abatement procedures were followed.[11]

Tropical Conditions and Asbestos Degradation

Vietnam's tropical climate created conditions that accelerated the breakdown of asbestos-containing materials far beyond rates observed in temperate environments — a factor unique to the Vietnam conflict among American wars. Research on asbestos-cement materials in tropical climates demonstrates that high humidity weakens asbestos-containing materials, making them more likely to release fibers. Seasonal temperature fluctuations cause asbestos materials to expand and contract, creating cracks that allow fibers to escape.[5] A Sri Lankan study on chrysotile asbestos-cement roofing sheets in tropical conditions found that fibers can easily detach from degraded cement matrices upon contact with rainwater, with surface runoff containing an average of 6.62 x 104 fibers per square meter per liter.[6]

These findings carry direct implications for Vietnam-era military installations. Asbestos exhibited the lowest thermal conductivity (0.09 W/m-K) among tested insulating materials, making it highly valued in tropical military construction — but its presence in high-heat, high-humidity environments accelerated degradation.[36] Vietnam's conditions — temperatures regularly exceeding 95 degrees Fahrenheit, humidity above 80%, intense UV radiation, and monsoon rainfall — meant that asbestos-containing materials installed in base construction, vehicle components, and ship insulation degraded faster than identical materials in stateside installations. Unlike temperate settings where asbestos exposure was primarily occupational (occurring during specific maintenance tasks), tropical degradation created ambient environmental exposure — personnel who never directly handled asbestos-containing materials could be exposed through environmental contamination at their installations.[5][6]

Early Burn Pit and Field Waste Disposal

During the Vietnam War, U.S. military personnel routinely used open-air burning to dispose of waste, including plastics, solvents, human waste, chemicals, and construction debris — establishing a practice that would become the subject of major legislation decades later.[37] The Vietnam Veterans of America (VVA) estimates that between 1965 and 1971, U.S. forces disposed of over 2,000 tons of rubbish per day. Base camps with more than 100 assigned personnel in place for 90 or more days used open-air burn pits for solid waste disposal, and burn-barrel latrines and burn pits were used in hundreds of base camps, fire bases, and landing zones throughout Vietnam.[38]

When construction debris containing asbestos was burned in these open-air pits, asbestos fibers were released into the ambient air alongside other toxic combustion products. VVA has called for a Government Accountability Office study into the health effects of daily burn pit exposure during the Vietnam War, asserting that Vietnam veterans were exposed to more toxic smoke than Iraq and Afghanistan veterans due to faster waste generation rates and closer proximity to burning.[39][38] This Vietnam-era practice represents a direct historical precedent to the burn pit crisis in Iraq and Afghanistan that eventually led to the PACT Act of 2022.[14]

Exposure by Military Branch During Vietnam

Army

The U.S. Army was the largest branch deployed in Vietnam, with approximately 1,736,000 personnel serving in-country during the conflict.[2] Army soldiers were exposed to asbestos through multiple pathways: vehicle maintenance on M113 APCs, M48 Patton tanks, M551 Sheridans, and trucks with asbestos brake and clutch components; habitation at base camps and firebases constructed with asbestos-containing building materials; equipment repair involving asbestos gaskets and insulation; and ambient environmental contamination from deteriorating construction materials in the tropical climate.[3][33]

Specialized Army military occupational specialties (MOS) carried the highest direct exposure risk. Mechanics (63-series MOS), combat engineers (12-series MOS), and construction specialists handled asbestos-containing vehicle components and building materials daily. However, virtually all Army personnel who served at established bases in Vietnam were exposed through environmental contamination from peak-era construction materials degrading in tropical conditions.[11] Many Army personnel also traveled to Vietnam aboard Navy transport ships, where asbestos lagging covered steam pipes throughout mess halls and sleeping areas, adding shipboard exposure to their ground-based asbestos contact before they even reached the theater of operations.[21]

Deeper Insight: The Army deployed over 600 M48 Patton tanks and thousands of M113 APCs to Vietnam — all containing asbestos brake and clutch components. The heavy operational tempo of the war required frequent field maintenance performed without respiratory protection. Long Binh Post alone housed up to 60,000 personnel in facilities constructed during the peak asbestos consumption era.[13][34]

See full analysis: Army_Asbestos_Exposure

Approximately 174,000 Navy personnel served in-country in Vietnam, with additional thousands serving offshore aboard carriers, cruisers, destroyers, and support vessels.[2] Blue water Navy operations centered on Task Force 77, which operated attack carriers at Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin and Dixie Station in the South China Sea. These carriers and their escort vessels were built during eras when asbestos was standard in naval construction, and sailors aboard them experienced continuous shipboard asbestos exposure throughout their deployments.[12][21]

The brown water Navy — including the Mobile Riverine Force, River Patrol Force (Task Force 116), and coastal patrol operations — put Navy personnel on smaller craft in the Mekong Delta and coastal waterways. While PBRs and Swift Boats (PCFs) had less asbestos than large warships, repair ships like the USS Krishna (ARL-38) performed maintenance operations that generated concentrated asbestos dust in tropical conditions.[27][26] More than 25,000 Seabees served in Vietnam, constructing airfields, ports, hospitals, and other infrastructure throughout the country. Seabees directly handled asbestos-containing construction materials and were among the most heavily exposed Navy personnel in the Vietnam theater.[7]

Deeper Insight: Navy ships in the Vietnam era contained over 300 asbestos-containing products and parts. Johns-Manville was contracted to manufacture asbestos-containing insulation for nearly every ship in the U.S. Navy, and these products remained aboard vessels through the Vietnam era. EaglePicher Industries supplied asbestos-containing insulating materials used on Navy ships, continuing military supply until the 1970s.[23][28][29]

See full analysis: Navy_Asbestos_Exposure

Marines

Approximately 391,000 Marines served in Vietnam, and they were among the first conventional U.S. forces deployed when the 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade landed at Da Nang in March 1965.[2] Marines bore heavy combat responsibility in I Corps, the northernmost military region, and their asbestos exposure came through multiple pathways: vehicle maintenance on tanks, AAVs, and trucks; habitation in base camps constructed with asbestos-containing materials; aircraft maintenance on Marine aviation Hueys, CH-46 Sea Knights, and fixed-wing aircraft; and transit aboard Navy vessels with shipboard asbestos insulation.[11][3]

The Marines' combined operations with the Navy added a cross-branch exposure dimension unique to Vietnam. Marines operated from naval vessels during amphibious operations and through the Mobile Riverine Force in the Mekong Delta, encountering shipboard asbestos in addition to their ground-based exposures. Marine engineers and construction units built and maintained forward operating bases using peak-era asbestos-containing materials, and the Marines' operational tempo — frequent base construction and demolition in combat zones — created repeated exposure events.[11][20]

Deeper Insight: Marines deployed to Vietnam faced both ground-based and shipboard asbestos exposure — a cross-branch combination that was particularly common during joint riverine operations in the Mekong Delta. Marine aviation units maintained helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft containing confirmed asbestos components, including UH-1 Huey exhaust gaskets.[4][11]

See full analysis: Marines_Asbestos_Exposure

Air Force

Approximately 293,000 Air Force personnel served in Vietnam, operating from major bases in both South Vietnam and Thailand.[2][32] Vietnam bases included Da Nang (the busiest single-runway airport in the world by the mid-1960s), Bien Hoa, Tan Son Nhut, Cam Ranh Bay, Phu Cat, and Phan Rang. Thailand bases — Korat, U-Tapao, Takhli, Nakhon Phanom, Ubon, and Udorn — supported B-52 bombing operations and tactical fighter missions.[17][32]

Aircraft maintenance was the primary Air Force exposure pathway. Maintenance personnel performed engine overhauls, brake replacements, and component repairs on F-4 Phantoms, F-105 Thunderchiefs, B-52 Stratofortresses, C-130 Hercules, and A-37 Dragonflies — all containing asbestos brake pads, gaskets, heat shields, and insulation.[16][31] The sustained bombing campaigns of Rolling Thunder (1965-1968) and Linebacker (1972) demanded constant aircraft maintenance, and the operational tempo at bases like Da Nang (55,000+ fixed-wing movements per month by 1968) meant maintenance crews worked continuously with asbestos-containing components.[17] Air Force civil engineering squadrons (RED HORSE and Prime BEEF) built and maintained base infrastructure using standard peak-era construction materials containing asbestos, and HVAC systems, electrical insulation, and fire suppression materials at all Vietnam and Thailand bases contained asbestos components.[11][33]

Deeper Insight: Da Nang Air Base processed approximately 67,000 aircraft movements per month by 1968 when helicopter activities were included. Every brake replacement, gasket change, and heat shield repair on these aircraft disturbed asbestos-containing materials. Air Force maintenance crews worked without respiratory protection or asbestos exposure monitoring throughout the conflict.[17][4]

See full analysis: Air_Force_Asbestos_Exposure

Coast Guard

Nearly 8,000 Coast Guard personnel, both Active and Reserve, served in the Southeast Asia theater during the Vietnam conflict.[40] The Coast Guard deployed to Vietnam under Operation Market Time (coastal surveillance) beginning in 1965, with Coast Guard Squadron One operating 26 Point-class cutters to interdict North Vietnamese supply shipments along the South Vietnamese coast. Coast Guard Squadron Three deployed 35 High Endurance Cutters on revolving six-month deployments from May 1967 through December 1971.[40] Coast Guard personnel also served at Port Safety Detachments in Vietnamese harbors and in aids-to-navigation teams maintaining navigational markers in combat zones.[21]

Coast Guard cutters deployed to Vietnam were built during the 1950s and 1960s, at the height of asbestos use in shipbuilding, and contained the same asbestos-containing insulation, gaskets, and components as Navy vessels of similar size. The USS Krishna (ARL-38) served as the repair facility, fueling station, and command center for Coast Guard Squadron One at An Thoi Naval Base, and Coast Guard personnel working alongside Navy crews on this WWII-era vessel were exposed to the ship's extensive asbestos insulation during maintenance and repair operations.[27][21]

Deeper Insight: Coast Guard Squadron One operated from the USS Krishna (ARL-38), a WWII-era repair ship built during the peak of naval asbestos use. Coast Guard personnel who worked on or were supported by the Krishna experienced shipboard asbestos exposure in tropical conditions that accelerated material degradation and fiber release.[27][5]

See full analysis: Coast_Guard_Asbestos_Exposure

Vietnam-Era Asbestos Products and Manufacturers

Multiple major asbestos manufacturers supplied products to the U.S. military under procurement contracts during the Vietnam era — at the precise historical moment when their production volumes were at all-time highs. Johns-Manville, the largest U.S. asbestos producer, was contracted to manufacture asbestos-containing insulation for nearly every ship in the U.S. Navy during WWII, and these products remained aboard vessels through the Vietnam era.[28] EaglePicher Industries supplied asbestos-containing insulating materials and cement products used on Navy ships and in military construction, continuing military supply until the 1970s.[29] Owens Corning manufactured Kaylo pipe covering and block insulation (sold 1953-1972) that was used aboard Navy vessels during the Vietnam era.[41] Garlock produced gaskets and clamps used in helicopters and military vehicles, documented in VA Board of Veterans' Appeals records and federal court filings.[42]

These manufacturers were still actively supplying asbestos-containing products to the military during the Vietnam era despite growing scientific evidence of health risks. The EPA first defined asbestos as a hazardous air pollutant in 1971, but military procurement of asbestos-containing products continued through the 1970s and in some applications through 1991.[11] Military-specific products included asbestos brake linings for vehicles, clutch facings, gaskets for aircraft engines, insulation for naval vessels, asbestos cement products for base construction, fire-resistant materials for ammunition storage, and heat-resistant components for weapons systems.[3][20]

Many of these Vietnam-era manufacturers subsequently filed for bankruptcy due to asbestos litigation and established trust funds to compensate victims. Over 60 active asbestos trust funds hold more than $30 billion in remaining assets, and Vietnam-era veterans may file claims with trusts established by manufacturers of products they were exposed to during service — including the Johns-Manville Trust, Owens Corning/Fibreboard Trust, and Eagle-Picher Trust.[10][43] Government procurement records documenting military asbestos contracts can help establish exposure to specific manufacturers' products, and the VA maintains records that can assist in identifying which products were used at specific installations and aboard specific vessels.[11]

Documented Health Studies and Epidemiological Data

Mesothelioma has a latency period of 20 to 50 years from first asbestos exposure to disease onset. For Vietnam-era exposures (1955-1975), this translates to a diagnosis window beginning in the 1970s and extending through approximately 2035. Veterans exposed during the heaviest combat years (1965-1973) entered the peak diagnosis window from approximately 1985 through 2023, and cases continue to be diagnosed at the tail end of the expected latency distribution. Approximately 30% of all U.S. mesothelioma cases involve veterans exposed during military service — a figure derived from VA program data and national mesothelioma litigation tracking rather than peer-reviewed epidemiology, as no current peer-reviewed study stratifies the U.S. mesothelioma denominator by veteran status.[15][3]

No peer-reviewed study specifically examining mesothelioma incidence rates among U.S. Vietnam War veterans as a distinct cohort has been identified, representing a critical gap in the epidemiological literature. The National Vietnam Veterans Longitudinal Study (NVVLS), a follow-up study of the 1984-1988 National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (NVVRS), reassessed a representative cohort in 2012-2013 and found that males averaged 5.4 lifetime chronic health conditions and females 6.6. However, the NVVLS focused primarily on PTSD, depression, and substance abuse and did not specifically track or report asbestos-related diseases or mesothelioma.[44][45]

Research into Agent Orange and herbicide-related health effects dominated Vietnam-era veterans' health investigations, with the VA providing $16.2 billion in compensation to 1,095,473 Vietnam-era veterans by 2010 under frameworks that did not specifically track asbestos exposure data.[46] The National Academies' multi-decade Veterans and Agent Orange reports acknowledged that most health studies of Vietnam veterans were hampered by relatively poor measures of exposure — a research paradigm that left asbestos exposure during Vietnam service largely undocumented and under-studied.[8] This gap in the research record does not diminish the reality of exposure: the military procured asbestos-containing products at historically unprecedented levels, and 2.7 million personnel served in an environment where those products were present in aircraft, vehicles, ships, and installations throughout the theater of operations.[1][2]

The CDC reported 45,221 malignant mesothelioma deaths in the United States between 1999 and 2015, with annual deaths increasing from 2,479 in 1999 to 2,597 in 2015.[47] With Vietnam-era veterans still within the latency window for mesothelioma diagnosis, new cases among this population will continue to emerge through the mid-2030s. The PACT Act of 2022 has improved access to VA benefits for veterans with toxic exposure-related conditions, including those diagnosed with mesothelioma, reducing the documentation burden for aging veterans who may struggle to reconstruct decades-old exposure records.[14][3]

Peer-Reviewed Research on Veteran and Military Mesothelioma

While no peer-reviewed study has yet stratified U.S. mesothelioma incidence by Vietnam-era veteran status, a body of peer-reviewed epidemiology covers adjacent cohorts — atomic veterans, Coast Guard shipyard workers, foreign navy servicemen, and U.S. Medicare beneficiaries — that informs the Vietnam-era mesothelioma picture. The most relevant studies are summarized below.

U.S. national surveillance

Mazurek (2017), in the CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, documented the U.S. malignant mesothelioma mortality burden from 1999 through 2015, recording 45,221 total deaths and a stable annual mortality of approximately 2,500 deaths per year. The report attributes the persistent disease burden to "asbestos exposures in the United States [that] occur predominantly during maintenance operations and remediation of older buildings containing asbestos" — exposures that are continuous with the Vietnam-era industrial environment.[47] Kurth, Mazurek, and Blackley (2023), in Occupational and Environmental Medicine, analyzed mesothelioma incidence and prevalence among U.S. Medicare beneficiaries from 2016 through 2019, finding that 73.5% of cases occurred in men and 90.7% in white patients — a demographic profile consistent with the Vietnam-era veteran population.[48]

Atomic veterans

Till, Beck, Boice, and Mohler (2022), in the International Journal of Radiation Biology, examined asbestos exposure and mesothelioma mortality in approximately 250,000 U.S. atomic veterans who participated in 230 above-ground nuclear tests from 1945 through 1962. The study explicitly identifies asbestos as a primary occupational exposure within the cohort and confirms elevated mesothelioma mortality in subgroups whose military duties placed them aboard ships and in shipyards during the same peak-consumption era as Vietnam veterans.[49]

Coast Guard and Navy cohorts

Rusiecki, Stewart, Lee, and Alexander (2018), in Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health, conducted a retrospective cohort mortality study of Coast Guard shipyard workers and identified increased mesothelioma and asbestos-related disease consistent with U.S. Navy shipyard exposure profiles.[50] Strand, Martinsen, and Koefoed (2010), in the American Journal of Industrial Medicine, studied 28,300 Royal Norwegian Navy servicemen and documented elevated rates of asbestos-related cancers — the closest available peer-reviewed analog to a U.S. Navy denominator and a strong external validation of the U.S. naval-mesothelioma signal.[51] Tagnon and colleagues (1980), in Cancer Research, identified pipecoverers and pipefitters as the highest-risk shipyard occupations in coastal Virginia — trades that crewed Navy steam-propulsion plants throughout the Vietnam era.[52]

Forward projections

Price (2022), in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, projected U.S. mesothelioma case counts forward through the next several decades based on SEER data and 39 large Veterans Administration hospitals as a surveillance source — a methodology that explicitly incorporates the long-tail Vietnam-era exposure burden into national projections.[53]

What Compensation Is Available for Vietnam-Era Veterans?

Vietnam-era veterans diagnosed with mesothelioma — and surviving family members of deceased veterans — have multiple avenues for compensation. The Department of Veterans Affairs assigns a 100% disability rating for mesothelioma, providing monthly compensation of $3,938.58 for single veterans or $4,158.17 for married veterans at the 2026 rate. Additional allowances are available for veterans with dependents ($4,318.99/month for veteran with spouse and one child), those requiring aid and attendance, and those who are housebound.[9][3]

The PACT Act (Sergeant First Class Heath Robinson Honoring our Promise to Address Comprehensive Toxics Act of 2022), signed by President Biden on August 10, 2022, is the largest healthcare and benefits expansion in VA history. The law has improved access to VA benefits for veterans with toxic exposure-related conditions, including those diagnosed with mesothelioma, and has simplified the claims process for service-connected conditions. The PACT Act applies to Vietnam-era, Gulf War, and post-9/11 veterans, and as of March 2024 all eligible veterans can enroll directly into VA healthcare. The law also required the VA to provide toxic exposure screenings to every veteran enrolled in VA health care.[14][54]

Beyond VA benefits, Vietnam-era veterans may file against over 60 active asbestos trust funds holding more than $30 billion in remaining assets. These trusts were established by bankrupt asbestos manufacturers — including companies like Johns-Manville, Owens Corning, and Eagle-Picher that supplied products for Vietnam-era military use — to compensate victims through an expedited claims process outside the traditional court system. Trust fund payouts typically award a total of $300,000 to $400,000 per claim, with payouts beginning in as few as 90 days. Critically, trust fund claims can be filed simultaneously with VA disability benefits — trust fund payouts do not reduce or affect VA compensation.[10][43]

Civil lawsuits against solvent asbestos manufacturers and their successor companies remain available as well. Surviving spouses of deceased Vietnam veterans may pursue Dependency and Indemnity Compensation (DIC) through the VA, wrongful death claims, and trust fund filings. Statutes of limitation for asbestos claims vary by state from 1 to 6 years after diagnosis, and the clock typically begins at diagnosis rather than at the time of exposure.[55][20]

Deeper Insight: Vietnam-era veterans can pursue VA disability ($3,938.58/month at 100% rating), asbestos trust fund claims ($30+ billion remaining across 60+ trusts), and civil lawsuits simultaneously. The PACT Act (signed August 10, 2022) improved access to VA benefits for veterans with toxic exposure-related conditions including mesothelioma, and trust fund payouts do not affect VA benefits. Statutes of limitation run from diagnosis, not exposure — protecting veterans even decades after service.[9][14][10]

See full analysis: Veterans_Mesothelioma_Quick_Reference

Frequently Asked Questions

Were Vietnam veterans exposed to asbestos?

Yes. The Vietnam War (1955-1975) coincided with the absolute peak of U.S. asbestos consumption, reaching a record 803,000 metric tons in 1973. All five branches of the military operated with equipment, vehicles, aircraft, and facilities containing asbestos-containing materials manufactured during this peak era. Approximately 2.7 million veterans who served in the Vietnam theater were potentially exposed through shipboard environments, aircraft maintenance, vehicle repair, base construction, and ambient environmental contamination from deteriorating asbestos-containing materials in the tropical climate.[1][2][3]

What makes Vietnam-era asbestos exposure unique compared to other wars?

Vietnam-era asbestos exposure is distinguished by several factors not present in other American conflicts. The war coincided with the all-time peak of U.S. asbestos consumption (803,000 metric tons in 1973), meaning military equipment was manufactured with more asbestos than during any other period. Vietnam was the first major helicopter war, and aircraft like the UH-1 Huey contained confirmed asbestos exhaust gaskets. Tropical conditions — extreme heat, humidity above 80%, and monsoon rainfall — accelerated the degradation of asbestos-containing materials far beyond temperate rates. The massive base construction program used peak-era asbestos-containing building materials across dozens of major installations.[1][4][5]

What types of asbestos-containing materials were present in Vietnam?

Asbestos-containing materials in the Vietnam theater included aircraft components (brake pads with 16-23% asbestos by weight, exhaust gaskets, heat shields, engine insulation), vehicle parts (brake linings, clutch facings, gaskets in M48 tanks, M113 APCs, and trucks), construction materials (asbestos cement roofing and siding, floor tiles, insulation, pipe wrapping, joint compounds), naval vessel components (boiler insulation, pipe lagging, gaskets, cable insulation, floor tiles), and miscellaneous items including fire-resistant blankets, electrical wire insulation, and generator components.[16][20][33]

How long does it take for mesothelioma to develop after Vietnam-era exposure?

Mesothelioma has a latency period of 20 to 50 years from first asbestos exposure to disease onset. For Vietnam-era exposure during 1965 (the major combat buildup), the diagnosis window extends from 1985 through 2015 and beyond. For exposure in 1973 (peak asbestos consumption year), the window extends from 1993 through 2023 and beyond. For the final year of the conflict (1975), cases may appear through 2025-2035. Vietnam-era mesothelioma cases are being diagnosed now, and new diagnoses will continue for another decade.[15][3]

Do Vietnam veterans qualify for VA disability benefits for mesothelioma?

Yes. Mesothelioma qualifies for a 100% VA disability rating, providing $3,938.58 per month for single veterans and $4,158.17 per month for married veterans at 2026 rates. The PACT Act (signed August 10, 2022) improved access to VA benefits for veterans with toxic exposure-related conditions including mesothelioma, simplifying the claims process for service-connected conditions. Vietnam-era veterans who demonstrate a mesothelioma diagnosis and a history of military service during the conflict are eligible for these benefits.[9][14][3]

Can Vietnam veterans file asbestos trust fund claims?

Yes. Over 60 active asbestos trust funds hold more than $30 billion in remaining assets and accept claims from veterans exposed to their products during military service. Trust fund payouts typically total $300,000 to $400,000 per claim and can begin within 90 days of filing. Critically, trust fund claims can be filed simultaneously with VA disability benefits and civil lawsuits — trust fund payouts do not reduce VA compensation. Many of the manufacturers that established these trusts (Johns-Manville, Owens Corning, Eagle-Picher) supplied products used in Vietnam-era military equipment, vehicles, aircraft, and installations.[10][43]

Did Agent Orange and asbestos exposure affect the same Vietnam veterans?

In many cases, yes. Veterans serving at bases in Vietnam were potentially exposed to both Agent Orange (tactical herbicide sprayed across an estimated 4.5 million acres) and asbestos (present in building materials, vehicle components, aircraft parts, and ship insulation). These are separate exposure pathways requiring separate claims and resulting in different diseases. While Agent Orange exposure has received the majority of research attention and legislative action for Vietnam-era veterans, the parallel asbestos exposure experienced by the same veteran population has been comparatively underexamined. Veterans affected by both exposures may pursue compensation for each independently.[8][3]

How do I prove asbestos exposure during Vietnam service?

Evidence for Vietnam-era asbestos exposure includes military service records (DD-214 discharge papers), unit assignment records, military occupational specialty (MOS) documentation, and the VA's Duty MOS/Rating Probability of Exposure matrix, which identifies specific military occupations and their associated asbestos exposure likelihood. The PACT Act has reduced the documentation burden for many veterans with toxic exposure-related conditions. An experienced mesothelioma attorney can help gather military records, identify specific asbestos products used at documented assignments, and connect exposure to manufacturer trust funds and civil claims.[3][14][11]

Quick Statistics

  • Total U.S. asbestos consumption (1900-2003) — approximately 31.5 million metric tons, with roughly half consumed after 1960[1]
  • U.S. import dependency — 94% import-dependent for asbestos throughout the Vietnam era, with Canada supplying ~94% of imports[1]
  • Post-Vietnam consumption decline — fell from 803,000 metric tons (1973) to approximately 15,000 tons by 2000 and 150 metric tons by 2023[1][22]
  • Aircraft brake asbestos content — 16% to 23% asbestos by weight in military aircraft brake systems[31]
  • Da Nang Air Base peak operations — monthly fixed-wing takeoffs/landings exceeded 55,000 by 1968; with helicopters, ~67,000[17]
  • River Patrol Force — approximately 250 PBR craft deployed beginning March 1966, patrolling Mekong Delta and Saigon River[26]
  • Long Binh Post — largest U.S. Army base in Vietnam, 60,000 personnel at peak, approximately $130 million in initial construction[34]
  • Navy Seabees in Vietnam — more than 25,000 construction personnel building airfields, ports, and hospitals with asbestos-containing materials[7]
  • Tropical fiber release — Sri Lankan study found chrysotile cement surface runoff containing 6.62 x 104 fibers/m2/liter in tropical conditions[6]
  • Vietnam-era burn pit waste — U.S. forces disposed of over 2,000 tons of rubbish per day between 1965 and 1971, including asbestos-containing construction debris[38]

Get Help

Vietnam-era veterans and families affected by asbestos exposure have multiple options for assistance:

  • Danziger & De Llano — Experienced mesothelioma attorneys representing Vietnam-era veterans and their families nationwide. Free case evaluation. Call (855) 699-5441.[3]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 Worldwide Asbestos Supply and Consumption Trends from 1900 through 2003 (Circular 1298), U.S. Geological Survey, 2006
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 Vietnam War Statistics, Vietnam Veterans of America, Charles S. Kettles Chapter 310
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Mesothelioma Veterans, Danziger & De Llano
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Board of Veterans' Appeals Case File 1145482, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (documenting UH-1 Huey asbestos exhaust gaskets and Lycoming engine manual)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 How Weather Impacts Asbestos Exposure in Construction, Asbestos Surveys UK
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Investigation of release and deterioration of chrysotile fibres in tropical conditions, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Seabees and Asbestos Exposure, Mesothelioma.net
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2012, National Academies Press
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 2026 VA Disability Compensation Rates, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Asbestos Trust Funds, Danziger & De Llano
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 Veterans and Mesothelioma, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Vietnam: The Yankee Station View, U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, September 2021
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 The M48 Patton Main Battle Tank, The Army Historical Foundation
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 The PACT Act and Your VA Benefits, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Mesothelioma Diagnosis, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Asbestos in Military Aircraft, Mesothelioma.net
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Da Nang Air Base, USAF Police Alumni Association
  18. ↑ Asbestos 2019 Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Geological Survey
  19. ↑ Asbestos Exposure Overview, Mesothelioma.net
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Mesothelioma Claims, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 Navy Mesothelioma, Danziger & De Llano
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Asbestos Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024, U.S. Geological Survey
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Navy Veterans and Mesothelioma, Mesothelioma.net
  24. ↑ USS Power (DD-839) Association — Asbestos Exposure in the Navy, USS Power DD-839 Veterans Association
  25. ↑ USS Coral Sea (CVA-43) Ship Locations, USS Coral Sea Association. Documents construction at Newport News Shipbuilding (1944-1947), Vietnam War deployments, and 7-year scrapping at Baltimore (1993-2000).
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Patrol Boat, Riverine (PBR), VFW Post 8870
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 USS Krishna (ARL-38), Wikipedia
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Johns-Manville Asbestos History, Mesothelioma.net
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 EaglePicher Industries Asbestos History, Mesothelioma.net
  30. ↑ Helicopters and Asbestos Exposure, Mesothelioma.net
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Aircraft maintenance and mesothelioma, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, PubMed Central
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Air Force Operations in Vietnam, TogetherWeServed.com
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Asbestos Abatement Guideline Detail Sheets, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1992
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Long Binh Post, Wikipedia
  35. ↑ Chapter V: The Bases — Cam Ranh Bay, U.S. Army Center of Military History
  36. ↑ Determination of the Thermal Properties of Some Selected Insulating Materials, IOSR Journal of Applied Physics
  37. ↑ Burn Pit Practices During the Vietnam War, Vietnam Veterans of America White Paper
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Overlooked Toxins of the Vietnam War, Vietnam Veterans of America
  39. ↑ Vietnam Burn Pits GAO Study Request, Vietnam Veterans of America
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Coast Guard Reserve History, U.S. Coast Guard Reserve
  41. ↑ Owens Corning Asbestos History, Mesothelioma.net
  42. ↑ Garlock Asbestos Gaskets in Helicopters — Court Filing 22-1087, U.S. District Court, District of Delaware
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Mesothelioma Settlements, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  44. ↑ Design and methods of the National Vietnam Veterans Longitudinal Study, PMC
  45. ↑ PTSD and Vietnam Veterans: A Lasting Issue 40 Years Later, VA Public Health
  46. ↑ Agent Orange and U.S. Veterans, Aspen Institute
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Malignant Mesothelioma Mortality — United States, 1999-2015, CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2017
  48. ↑ Malignant mesothelioma among US Medicare beneficiaries: incidence, prevalence and therapy, 2016–2019, Kurth L, Mazurek JM, Blackley DJ. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2023 (PMID 36635096)
  49. ↑ Asbestos exposure and mesothelioma mortality among atomic veterans, Till JE, Beck HL, Boice JD Jr, Mohler HJ. International Journal of Radiation Biology 2022 (PMID 30513236)
  50. ↑ Mortality among Coast Guard Shipyard workers: A retrospective cohort study of specific exposures, Rusiecki J, Stewart P, Lee D, Alexander M. Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health 2018 (PMID 28166467)
  51. ↑ Asbestos-related cancers among 28,300 military servicemen in the Royal Norwegian Navy, Strand LA, Martinsen JI, Koefoed VF. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 2010 (PMID 19921706)
  52. ↑ Mesothelioma associated with the shipbuilding industry in coastal Virginia, Tagnon I, Blot WJ, Stroube RB, Day NE. Cancer Research 1980 (PMID 7471040)
  53. ↑ Projection of future numbers of mesothelioma cases in the US and the increasing prevalence of background cases: an update based on SEER data, Price B. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 2022 (PMID 35852497)
  54. ↑ PACT Act (Public Law 117-168), U.S. Congress
  55. ↑ Mesothelioma Compensation, Danziger & De Llano
  56. ↑ Mesothelioma Lawyers Near Me
  57. ↑ Mesothelioma and Veterans, Mesothelioma.net
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