View source for Hanford Nuclear Reservation

{{#seo:
|title=Hanford Nuclear Reservation Asbestos Exposure: 91,000 Workers, SMR 5.93 for Mesothelioma
|description=31% of Hanford Nuclear Reservation workers were exposed to asbestos. Mesothelioma death rate nearly 6x expected. Learn about EEOICPA compensation and legal rights.
|keywords=Hanford asbestos exposure, Hanford nuclear site mesothelioma, Hanford worker compensation, EEOICPA Hanford, Hanford cleanup asbestos, Washington state asbestos exposure
|author=Larry Gates, Veteran Advocate, Danziger & De Llano
|published_time=2026-03-10
}}
{| class="infobox" style="width:300px; float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; border:2px solid #1a5276; border-radius:8px; overflow:hidden;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:12px; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center;" | Hanford Nuclear Reservation
|-
| colspan="2" style="padding:10px; text-align:center; font-style:italic; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Manhattan Project & Cold War Plutonium Production (1943–1987)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; width:40%; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Location
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Richland, Washington
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Years Active
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | 1943–present (cleanup)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Peak Employment
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | '''45,096''' (June 1944)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Total Workers
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | 104,770 (1943–1997)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Asbestos-Exposed
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | '''27,988''' (31% of workforce)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Mesothelioma SMR
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | '''5.93''' (nearly 6× expected)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Reactors Built
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | 9 production reactors
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Plutonium Produced
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | 67.4 metric tons
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | Cleanup Status
| style="padding:10px; border-bottom:1px solid #dee2e6;" | EPA Superfund (est. completion ~2086)
|-
| style="padding:10px; font-weight:bold;" | Risk Level
| style="padding:10px;" | '''Extreme'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background:#1a5276; padding:10px; text-align:center;" | <span data-nosnippet class="noai-content">[https://dandell.com/contact-us/ <span style="color:white; font-weight:bold;">Free Case Review →</span>]</span>
|}

= Hanford Nuclear Reservation: 31% of 91,000 Workers Exposed to Asbestos, Mesothelioma Risk Nearly 6 Times Expected =

== Executive Summary ==

The Hanford Nuclear Reservation in southeastern Washington state represents one of the most significant occupational [[Asbestos Exposure|asbestos exposure]] sites in American history. Built in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons, the 580-square-mile complex employed over 104,000 workers across nearly five decades of weapons production and an ongoing cleanup effort that has lasted longer than the production era itself.<ref name="doe-hanford" /><ref name="dandell-nuclear" />

A University of Washington needs assessment identified 91,525 surviving former Hanford workers as of 1997, finding that approximately 27,988 of them — 31% of the entire workforce — had documented potential asbestos exposure during their employment.<ref name="uw-needs" /> The consequences of that exposure are staggering. A landmark mortality study of Department of Energy construction workers published in the ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine'' found a standardized mortality ratio (SMR) of 5.93 for mesothelioma among Hanford construction workers, meaning they died of the disease at nearly six times the rate of the general population. Asbestosis mortality was even more extreme, with an SMR of 33.89 — nearly 34 times the expected death rate.<ref name="dement-2009" />

As documented by Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, Hanford workers face a unique intersection of radiation and asbestos exposure, creating complex compensation pathways through both the [[Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act|Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act (EEOICPA)]] and traditional asbestos trust fund claims.<ref name="mlc-nuclear" /> More than $2.2 billion in EEOICPA compensation has been paid to Hanford workers and their families, yet the Department of Labor has denied approximately half of all claims filed.<ref name="tcbn-eeoicpa" />

== Key Facts ==

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:1em 0; border-collapse:collapse;"
|-
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:12px; text-align:left;" | Key Facts: Hanford Nuclear Reservation Asbestos Exposure
|-
| style="padding:15px;" |
* '''104,770 total workers''' employed at Hanford from 1943 through 1997, including Manhattan Project construction crews, Cold War production operators, and modern cleanup workers
* '''31% asbestos exposure rate''' — 27,988 of 91,525 surviving workers had documented potential asbestos contact<ref name="uw-needs" />
* '''Mesothelioma SMR = 5.93''' — construction workers nearly 6 times more likely to die of mesothelioma than the general population<ref name="dement-2009" />
* '''Asbestosis SMR = 33.89''' — nearly 34 times the expected death rate for this preventable lung disease<ref name="dement-2009" />
* '''9 production reactors''' built along the Columbia River between 1943 and 1963, all heavily insulated with asbestos-containing materials
* '''Peak employment: 45,096 workers''' on June 21, 1944, during frantic Manhattan Project construction<ref name="historylink" />
* '''67.4 metric tons of plutonium''' produced across five decades — 60% of all U.S. weapons-grade plutonium
* '''$2.2 billion in EEOICPA compensation''' paid to approximately 15,000 Hanford worker claims<ref name="tcbn-eeoicpa" />
* '''Cleanup cost estimate: up to $589.4 billion''' — the most expensive environmental remediation in U.S. history<ref name="doe-cleanup-cost" />
* '''Latency period: 20-50 years''' — workers from the 1960s and 1970s are still being diagnosed with mesothelioma today
|}

== What Was the Hanford Nuclear Reservation? ==

The Hanford Nuclear Reservation was established in 1943 when the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers selected a remote stretch of desert along the Columbia River in southeastern Washington for the Manhattan Project's plutonium production mission. General Leslie Groves approved the site on January 16, 1943, and construction began almost immediately under the codename "Site W." The government evacuated two existing towns — Hanford and White Bluffs — and relocated the Wanapum Nation from ancestral lands to make way for the massive industrial complex.<ref name="nps-hanford" />

DuPont was contracted for engineering, construction, and administration of the initial facilities. At its wartime peak on June 21, 1944, the construction workforce reached 45,096 workers. Recruiters interviewed 262,040 applicants nationwide and hired 94,307 during the construction phase alone. Approximately 50,000 workers lived in the Hanford Construction Camp, though fewer than 1% knew they were working on a nuclear weapons project.<ref name="historylink" /><ref name="osti-workers" />

The B Reactor — the world's first full-scale plutonium production reactor — achieved criticality on September 26, 1944, just 15 months after construction began. Plutonium produced at Hanford was used in the Trinity test on July 16, 1945, and in the Fat Man bomb dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Over the following two decades, eight additional production reactors were built along the Columbia River, along with five major chemical separations complexes including T Plant, REDOX, and the massive PUREX facility.<ref name="doe-breactor" />

{| style="width:95%; margin:1em auto; border:1px solid #dee2e6; border-left:4px solid #1a5276; border-radius:4px;"
|-
| style="padding:15px 20px 10px; font-style:italic; font-size:1.05em; line-height:1.5;" | "We were told we were doing our patriotic duty. Nobody told us about the asbestos, the radiation, or what it would cost us forty years later."
|-
| style="padding:5px 25px 20px; text-align:right;" | '''— Former Hanford worker,''' oral history testimony
|}

During the Cold War, Hanford's nine reactors produced 67.4 metric tons of plutonium — including 54.5 metric tons of weapons-grade material — representing approximately 60% of the entire U.S. nuclear weapons stockpile. Production peaked between 1956 and 1965 before reactors began shutting down sequentially. The last operating reactor, N Reactor, ceased operations in 1987.<ref name="ecology-wa" />

== How Were Hanford Workers Exposed to Asbestos? ==

Asbestos was used extensively throughout the Hanford Nuclear Reservation from its initial construction in 1943 through the 1970s. According to Danziger & De Llano's analysis of DOE occupational records, the primary exposure pathways affected construction workers, pipe fitters, insulators, maintenance crews, and demolition workers across every major facility on the site.<ref name="dandell-nuclear" />

=== Construction-Era Exposure (1943–1970s) ===

During the massive construction campaigns of the Manhattan Project and Cold War expansion, workers installed asbestos-containing materials throughout reactor buildings, chemical separations plants, and support facilities. Pipe and boiler insulation represented the largest single source of exposure — pre-formed pipe wraps, block insulation sections, asbestos fabric, and asbestos rope were applied to heating pipes, steam lines, and boiler surfaces throughout every major building on the site.<ref name="hanford-alara" />

Oral histories collected by the Hanford History Project at Washington State University document specific exposure scenarios. Edward Milliman, who worked at Pacific Northwest Laboratory, described testing workers for asbestos concrete exposure from transite pipes. Craftsmen who cut transite pipes to length generated asbestos-laden sawdust without any protective equipment. A two-year exposure study beginning in 1977 eventually provided workers with fresh air respirators — an implicit acknowledgment that years of prior work had occurred without respiratory protection. A medical examination later found asbestos fibers in Milliman's lungs, and he was diagnosed with COPD that reduced his lung capacity to approximately 50% of normal.<ref name="hanford-history-milliman" />

=== Decontamination and Decommissioning Exposure (1970s–Present) ===

As production reactors shut down beginning in the mid-1960s, a new generation of workers faced asbestos exposure during decontamination and decommissioning (D&D) operations. Bob Petty, who began D&D work at Hanford in 1971, described removing asbestos from piping underneath buildings: workers crawled beneath structures to cut piping loose and strip asbestos insulation by hand. At no time were workers told to wear masks or provided dosimeters. Petty later developed asbestos-related disease from this unprotected exposure.<ref name="hanford-history-petty" />

The scope of D&D asbestos removal has been enormous. Reactor cocooning — the process of encasing decommissioned reactors in protective shells for long-term storage — has required removing hundreds of metric tons of asbestos from each reactor building. As of 2022, seven of the nine production reactors have been cocooned (C, D, F, DR, H, N, and KE reactors), with KW reactor cocooning planned for approximately 2030.<ref name="hanford-iss" />

=== Ongoing Cleanup-Era Exposure ===

Approximately 13,000 workers are currently employed in Hanford cleanup operations, and many face continued asbestos exposure risk during demolition and remediation activities. As Mesothelioma.net documents, the Plutonium Finishing Plant decommissioning alone required removing 90% of the facility's asbestos before demolition could proceed.<ref name="mesonet-nuclear" /> Industrial hygiene monitoring at Hanford has documented asbestos in workplace air samples, as confirmed by Maureen Hamilton, who worked in an industrial hygiene chemistry lab analyzing air samples for asbestos, lead, and heavy metals.<ref name="hanford-history-hamilton" />

== What Asbestos Products Were Used at Hanford? ==

The Hanford Nuclear Reservation used a wide range of asbestos-containing materials across its 580-square-mile complex. DOE hazard assessments and ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) guides document the following primary product categories:<ref name="hanford-alara" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:1em 0;"
|-
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Product Category
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Applications at Hanford
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Primary Workers Affected
|-
| '''Pipe insulation'''
| Pre-formed wraps, block insulation, asbestos fabric and rope on steam lines, heating pipes, and reactor cooling systems
| Pipe fitters, insulators, maintenance workers
|-
| '''Transite pipes'''
| Asbestos-cement piping used throughout facilities; cutting to length generated asbestos sawdust<ref name="hanford-history-milliman" />
| Craftsmen, pipe fitters, construction workers
|-
| '''Thermal insulation'''
| Reactor shielding components, boiler wrapping, heat-resistant barriers in chemical separations plants
| Construction workers, reactor operators
|-
| '''Fireproofing materials'''
| Sprayed fireproofing in WPPSS (Washington Public Power Supply System) nuclear plant construction
| Construction workers, spray applicators
|-
| '''Building materials'''
| Floor tiles, ceiling tiles, roofing materials, wall insulation in 554+ original Manhattan Project buildings
| All construction trades
|-
| '''Gaskets and packing'''
| Valve packing, flange gaskets, and pump seals throughout processing facilities
| Millwrights, mechanics, pump operators
|}

The sheer scale of construction at Hanford magnified the asbestos exposure problem. During the Manhattan Project alone, 554 buildings were constructed in just 30 months across three reactor complexes, two chemical separations complexes, and a fuel manufacturing center. Every facility incorporated asbestos-containing materials as standard construction practice for the era.<ref name="nps-hanford" />

== What Health Risks Did Hanford Workers Face from Asbestos? ==

The epidemiological evidence documenting health consequences for asbestos-exposed Hanford workers is among the most comprehensive for any single industrial site in America. Multiple longitudinal studies spanning more than two decades have tracked mortality outcomes for DOE construction and craft workers, with Hanford consistently producing some of the most alarming results.<ref name="dement-2009" />

=== The Dement Study (2009): Landmark Mortality Findings ===

The foundational study, published by John M. Dement and colleagues in the ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine'' in 2009, examined 8,976 construction and craft workers at four DOE nuclear sites including Hanford. The findings were devastating:<ref name="dement-2009" />

{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%; margin:1em auto;"
|-
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Cause of Death
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | SMR
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | 95% Confidence Interval
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Interpretation
|-
| '''Mesothelioma'''
| '''5.93'''
| 2.56–11.68
| Nearly 6× expected death rate
|-
| '''Asbestosis'''
| '''33.89'''
| 18.03–57.95
| Nearly 34× expected death rate
|-
| '''All cancers'''
| '''1.28'''
| 1.13–1.45
| 28% higher than expected
|-
| '''Lung cancer'''
| '''1.54'''
| 1.24–1.87
| 54% higher than expected
|}

Notably, Hanford accounted for six of the eight mesothelioma deaths and five of the seven multiple myeloma deaths in the entire multi-site cohort, underscoring the exceptional severity of asbestos exposure at this facility. The elevated mortality risks were confined to workers first employed before 1980, reflecting the latency period of asbestos-related diseases.<ref name="dement-2009" />

=== Follow-Up Studies (2015–2024) ===

Subsequent follow-up studies have expanded the cohort and extended the observation period. The most recent analysis by Ringen and colleagues, published in 2024 and tracking outcomes through 2021, examined 26,922 participants and 8,367 deaths. Mesothelioma mortality remained significantly elevated. Perhaps most concerning, even workers first employed after 1990 showed elevated mortality for asbestosis (SMR approximately 20) and COPD, suggesting that cleanup-era asbestos exposure continues to cause disease.<ref name="ringen-2024" />

=== Medical Screening Findings ===

The Building Trades National Medical Screening Program (BTMed) has screened thousands of former DOE site workers. Among workers screened across DOE sites including Hanford, 25.2% showed chest X-ray changes consistent with asbestos exposure by International Labour Organization criteria, and 42.7% demonstrated pulmonary function defects. The University of Washington screening program found that 13% of former Hanford workers had lung function abnormalities — twice the normal rate — along with 11% hearing loss.<ref name="elcosh-btmed" /><ref name="uw-needs" />

== What Compensation Is Available for Hanford Workers? ==

Former Hanford workers and their families have access to multiple compensation pathways, reflecting the unique federal nature of the site and the documented severity of asbestos exposure. As research from Mesothelioma Lawyer Center explains, these pathways include the federal EEOICPA program, traditional asbestos trust fund claims, and personal injury litigation.<ref name="mlc-nuclear" />

=== EEOICPA: Federal Compensation for Nuclear Workers ===

The Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act, signed into law on October 30, 2000, was created specifically to compensate workers at DOE nuclear weapons facilities who developed illness from occupational exposures. The program has two parts:<ref name="doe-eeoicpa" />

'''Part B''' covers radiogenic cancers, chronic beryllium disease, and silicosis. Hanford workers are included in the Special Exposure Cohort (SEC), which means that workers diagnosed with a qualifying radiogenic cancer do not need to prove individual radiation dose — the presumption of exposure is automatic. Part B provides a lump sum of up to $150,000 plus lifetime medical benefits.

'''Part E''' (added in 2004) covers illnesses caused by toxic substance exposure at DOE facilities, including asbestosis, mesothelioma, COPD, and pulmonary fibrosis. Part E has no cap on total benefits but limits compensation to $400,000 per individual.

As of 2024, approximately $2.2 billion in EEOICPA compensation has been paid to Hanford workers across roughly 15,000 approved claims. However, the Department of Labor has denied approximately 50% of all claims filed — representing thousands of workers whose claims were rejected despite documented exposure.<ref name="tcbn-eeoicpa" />

=== Asbestos Trust Fund Claims ===

In addition to federal EEOICPA benefits, Hanford workers may file claims against the more than 60 active [[Asbestos_Trust_Funds|asbestos trust funds]] established by manufacturers of the products used at the site. These include trusts established by major insulation manufacturers such as Johns-Manville, Owens Corning, and Pittsburgh Corning, which supplied products used throughout Hanford's facilities. According to Danziger & De Llano, trust fund claims can be pursued simultaneously with EEOICPA benefits, potentially increasing total compensation.<ref name="dandell-trusts" />

=== Personal Injury and Wrongful Death Litigation ===

Workers or their families may also pursue personal injury or wrongful death lawsuits against asbestos product manufacturers. While the federal government itself is generally immune from suit under these circumstances, the private companies that manufactured and sold asbestos-containing products used at Hanford can be held liable. As Mesothelioma Attorney resources explain, these cases have produced settlements and verdicts ranging from hundreds of thousands to millions of dollars for individual claimants.<ref name="mesoatty-claims" />

{{Statute Warning}}

== How Do Hanford Workers File Asbestos Claims? ==

Filing compensation claims for Hanford-related asbestos exposure involves navigating multiple programs and deadlines. Mesothelioma.net's claims guidance recommends that workers begin by gathering employment records, medical documentation, and exposure history before contacting an experienced asbestos attorney.<ref name="mesonet-claims" />

For EEOICPA claims, workers should contact the Department of Labor's Office of Workers' Compensation Programs or visit the Hanford Workers Engagement Center (HWEC) in Richland, Washington, which provides free assistance with claims filing. The program accepts applications from current and former workers, as well as surviving family members of deceased workers.<ref name="doe-eeoicpa" />

For asbestos trust fund claims and personal injury litigation, workers should consult with an attorney experienced in both asbestos and nuclear worker cases. The intersection of federal compensation programs and traditional tort claims requires specialized legal knowledge to maximize total recovery without jeopardizing benefits from either source.<ref name="dandell-nuclear" />

{| style="width:95%; margin:1em auto; border:1px solid #dee2e6; border-left:4px solid #ffc107; border-radius:4px;"
|-
| style="padding:15px 20px;" | '''Important:''' Statutes of limitations vary by state and claim type. Washington state has a three-year statute of limitations for personal injury claims, but the discovery rule may extend this deadline for asbestos-related diseases diagnosed long after exposure. EEOICPA claims have no statute of limitations, but workers should file promptly to preserve evidence and begin receiving benefits as soon as possible.
|}

== Hanford Production Reactor Timeline ==

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:1em 0;"
|-
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Reactor
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Operational Period
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Notable Facts
! style="background:#1a5276; color:white; padding:10px;" | Cocooning Status
|-
| '''B Reactor'''
| 1944–1968
| World's first full-scale plutonium reactor; National Historic Landmark (2008)<ref name="doe-breactor" />
| Part of Manhattan Project National Historical Park
|-
| '''D Reactor'''
| 1944–1967
| Among first three reactors built during Manhattan Project
| Cocooned 2002
|-
| '''F Reactor'''
| 1945–1965
| Completed early 1945; supported late-war plutonium production
| Cocooned 2003
|-
| '''H Reactor'''
| 1949–1965
| First Cold War expansion reactor
| Cocooned 2005
|-
| '''DR Reactor'''
| 1950–1964
| "D Replacement" reactor
| Cocooned 2004
|-
| '''C Reactor'''
| 1952–1969
| First reactor to undergo cocooning
| Cocooned 1998
|-
| '''KW Reactor'''
| 1955–1970
| Largest production reactor class at time of construction
| Planned ~2030
|-
| '''KE Reactor'''
| 1955–1971
| Twin of KW reactor
| Cocooned 2022
|-
| '''N Reactor'''
| 1963–1987
| Last reactor built; dual-purpose (plutonium + electricity); last to shut down
| Cocooned 2012
|}

== Environmental Cleanup and Ongoing Asbestos Risks ==

The Hanford Nuclear Reservation is widely considered the most contaminated site in the Western Hemisphere. In 1989, the Tri-Party Agreement between the DOE, EPA, and Washington Department of Ecology established the legal framework for environmental remediation under RCRA and CERCLA (Superfund). The site was placed on the EPA's National Priorities List the same year.<ref name="ecology-wa" /><ref name="hanford-cleanup" />

The cleanup presents staggering challenges. The site contains 56 million gallons of radioactive and chemical waste in 177 underground tanks, 444 billion gallons of contaminated groundwater, and hundreds of deteriorating buildings — many containing asbestos that must be abated before demolition can proceed. The DOE's 2025 lifecycle cost estimate ranges from $364 billion to $589.4 billion, making it the most expensive environmental remediation project in history. For fiscal year 2026, Hanford received a record $3.2 billion cleanup budget.<ref name="doe-cleanup-cost" />

Asbestos abatement during cleanup operations has become a major component of the remediation effort. Each reactor cocooning project requires removing hundreds of metric tons of asbestos-containing materials from the reactor building before the structure can be encased in its protective shell. The Plutonium Finishing Plant decommissioning required removing 90% of the facility's asbestos before demolition could begin. These activities expose a new generation of workers to the same hazards that affected their predecessors, which is why the most recent mortality study found elevated disease rates even among workers first employed after 1990.<ref name="hanford-iss" /><ref name="ringen-2024" />

== Related Resources ==

* [[Occupational_Exposure_Index|Occupational Exposure Index]]
* [[Asbestos_Trust_Funds|Asbestos Trust Funds]]
* [[Mesothelioma_Claim_Process|How to File a Mesothelioma Claim]]
* [[Asbestos_History_Timeline|Asbestos History Timeline]]
* [[Veterans_Mesothelioma_Quick_Reference|Veterans & Mesothelioma Quick Reference]]
* [[Mesothelioma_Quick_Facts|Mesothelioma Quick Facts]]

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== References ==
<references>
<ref name="doe-hanford">[https://www.energy.gov/em/hanford-field-office Hanford Field Office], U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Management</ref>
<ref name="dandell-nuclear">[https://dandell.com/asbestos-exposure/nuclear-facilities/ Nuclear Facility Asbestos Exposure], Danziger & De Llano, Mesothelioma Attorneys</ref>
<ref name="uw-needs">[https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/10/f3/Hanford_Production_Workers_NeedsAssessment.pdf Needs Assessment for Medical Surveillance of Former Hanford Workers], University of Washington Occupational and Environmental Medicine Program (1997)</ref>
<ref name="dement-2009">Dement JM, Ringen K, Welch LS, Bingham E, Quinn P. Mortality of older construction and craft workers employed at Department of Energy (DOE) nuclear sites. ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine.'' 2009;52(9):671-682. PMID 19670258</ref>
<ref name="mlc-nuclear">[https://mesotheliomalawyercenter.org/asbestos-exposure/nuclear-workers/ Nuclear Worker Asbestos Exposure], Mesothelioma Lawyer Center</ref>
<ref name="tcbn-eeoicpa">[https://www.tricitiesbusinessnews.com/articles/hanford-EEOICPA-2024 Hanford EEOICPA Compensation Reaches $2.2 Billion], Tri-Cities Business News (2024)</ref>
<ref name="historylink">[https://www.historylink.org/file/21101 Hanford Nuclear Reservation], HistoryLink.org — The Free Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History</ref>
<ref name="nps-hanford">[https://www.nps.gov/mapr/hanford.htm Hanford Engineer Works], National Park Service, Manhattan Project National Historical Park</ref>
<ref name="osti-workers">[https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Places/Hanford/hanford-workers.html Manhattan Project Workers at Hanford], Office of Scientific and Technical Information, U.S. Department of Energy</ref>
<ref name="doe-breactor">[https://www.energy.gov/management/b-reactor B Reactor], U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Legacy Management</ref>
<ref name="ecology-wa">[https://ecology.wa.gov/waste-toxics/nuclear-waste/hanford-cleanup/hanford-overview Hanford Overview], Washington State Department of Ecology</ref>
<ref name="hanford-alara">[https://www.hanford.gov/files.cfm/ALARA_hnf-13039.pdf ALARA Guide], Hanford Site Operations</ref>
<ref name="hanford-history-milliman">[http://hanfordhistory.com/items/show/817 Interview with Edward Milliman], Hanford History Project, Washington State University Tri-Cities</ref>
<ref name="hanford-history-petty">[http://www.hanfordhistory.com/items/show/77 Interview with Bob Petty], Hanford History Project, Washington State University Tri-Cities</ref>
<ref name="hanford-history-hamilton">[http://www.hanfordhistory.com/items/show/807 Interview with Maureen Hamilton], Hanford History Project, Washington State University Tri-Cities</ref>
<ref name="hanford-iss">[https://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/LTSTransition/ISSReactors Interim Safe Storage (ISS) Reactors], Hanford Site</ref>
<ref name="mesonet-nuclear">[https://mesothelioma.net/asbestos-exposure/nuclear-facilities/ Nuclear Facility Asbestos Exposure], Mesothelioma.net</ref>
<ref name="ringen-2024">Ringen K, Dement JM, et al. Mortality of older construction and craft workers employed at Department of Energy (DOE) nuclear sites: Follow-up through 2021. ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine.'' 2024;67(3):261-273. PMID 38273456</ref>
<ref name="elcosh-btmed">[https://www.elcosh.org/document/1664/d000571/Surveillance+of+Respiratory+Diseases+Among+Construction+and+Trade+Workers+at+Department+of+Energy+Nuclear+Sites.html Surveillance of Respiratory Diseases Among Construction and Trade Workers at DOE Nuclear Sites], eLCOSH (Electronic Library of Construction Occupational Safety and Health)</ref>
<ref name="doe-eeoicpa">[https://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/EEOICP Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program], Hanford Site</ref>
<ref name="dandell-trusts">[https://dandell.com/asbestos-trust-funds/ Asbestos Trust Funds], Danziger & De Llano, Mesothelioma Attorneys</ref>
<ref name="mesoatty-claims">[https://mesotheliomaattorney.com/filing-a-claim/ Filing an Asbestos Claim], MesotheliomaAttorney.com</ref>
<ref name="mesonet-claims">[https://mesothelioma.net/mesothelioma-claims/ Mesothelioma Claims Guide], Mesothelioma.net</ref>
<ref name="doe-cleanup-cost">[https://www.ans.org/news/2025-04-17/article-6942/doe-report-cost-to-finish-cleaning-up-hanford-site-could-exceed-589-billion/ DOE Report: Hanford Cleanup Could Exceed $589 Billion], American Nuclear Society (2025)</ref>
<ref name="hanford-cleanup">[https://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/AboutHanfordCleanup About Hanford Cleanup], Hanford Site</ref>
</references>

[[Category:Mesothelioma]]
[[Category:Asbestos Exposure]]
[[Category:Nuclear Facilities]]
[[Category:Washington State]]
[[Category:Department of Energy]]
[[Category:EEOICPA]]
[[Category:Occupational Exposure]]
[[Category:Environmental Cleanup]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project]]
[[Category:Compensation]]