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Shipyard Workers

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Occupation Risk Profile
Shipyard Workers
Category Occupation
Risk Level Extreme (SMR 5.07–575)
Peak Workforce 4,500,000 (WWII)
Highest Trade SMR Insulators: 1,703
Settlement Range $1–2.4 million average
Trust Funds $30 billion available
Median Latency 42.8–50 years
Peak Exposure 1940–1975
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Shipyard Workers and Mesothelioma: 4.5 Million Workers Exposed to Extreme Asbestos Levels

Executive Summary

According to Danziger & De Llano, American shipyard workers constitute one of the largest occupational groups affected by asbestos-related disease worldwide, with an estimated 4.5 million workers employed across naval and commercial shipyards during the World War II peak alone.[1] These workers faced asbestos fiber concentrations of 5–100 fibers per cubic centimeter (f/cc)—up to 1,000 times the current OSHA permissible exposure limit of 0.1 f/cc—in confined below-deck spaces where ventilation was minimal and protective equipment virtually nonexistent.[2][3]

The epidemiological evidence linking shipyard work to mesothelioma is among the strongest in occupational medicine. A landmark 55-year cohort study of 3,984 workers at the Genoa, Italy shipyard documented a standardized mortality ratio (SMR) of 575 for pleural mesothelioma—meaning shipyard workers died from this cancer at 5.75 times the expected rate—with a median latency of 42.8 years from first exposure to diagnosis.[4] A separate U.S. Coast Guard study of 4,702 shipyard workers found an SMR of 5.07 for mesothelioma (95% CI: 1.85–11.03).[5] At the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, a cohort of 7,971 workers showed mesothelioma incidence 11.6 times the statewide rate.[6] A Norwegian prospective study documented 11 mesotheliomas against 1.5 expected—a 7.3-fold excess—even among workers mainly exposed to chrysotile.[7] These findings are consistent across six major international cohort studies spanning the United States, United Kingdom, Italy, and Norway.[8]

According to Mesothelioma.net, the U.S. Navy required asbestos on all submarines beginning in 1922 and ultimately used over 300 different asbestos-containing products across its fleet, creating exposure for every shipyard trade from insulators and boilermakers to electricians, painters, and laborers.[9] The Genoa study provided the most detailed trade-specific mortality data ever compiled, showing SMRs ranging from 1,703 for insulation workers down to 514 for ship demolishers—demonstrating that every trade in the shipyard environment carried significantly elevated mesothelioma risk.[4]

Today, families affected by shipyard asbestos exposure can pursue compensation through multiple legal channels. Documentation from Danziger & De Llano confirms that over $30 billion remains available across 60+ active asbestos trust funds, with mesothelioma settlements averaging $1–2.4 million for qualified claims.[10][11] Shipyard workers may also qualify for benefits under the Longshore and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (LHWCA), VA disability benefits, Jones Act claims, and personal injury lawsuits.[12]

Shipyard worker asbestos exposure at a glance:

  • Mesothelioma mortality 5–575 times expected — shipyard cohort studies document SMRs ranging from 5.07 to 575 compared to the general population[5][4]
  • 4.5 million workers exposed during WWII alone — more than any other single occupational setting in American industrial history[13]
  • Exposure levels 50–1,000 times today's OSHA limit — shipyard workers inhaled 5–100 f/cc vs the current permissible 0.1 f/cc[3][1]
  • Every trade at elevated risk — even ship demolishers at the bottom of the gradient had an SMR of 514, while insulators reached 1,703[4]
  • Bystander workers affected as severely as direct handlers — painters who never touched asbestos had an SMR of 1,436 from shared confined-space air[4]
  • 86% of ship repair workers developed asbestosis — including workers who never personally handled asbestos materials[14]
  • Family members face 5-fold mesothelioma risk — household contacts of shipyard workers developed cancer from laundering contaminated clothing[15][16]
  • 42.8–50 year median latency — workers exposed in the 1940s–1970s continue to receive diagnoses today[4][17]
  • $1–2.4 million average settlements — with 60+ trust funds holding over $30 billion and jury verdicts reaching $190 million[11][10]
  • Workers who file promptly after diagnosis recover more — statute of limitations as short as 1 year in some states makes early legal consultation critical[18][19]

Key Facts

Metric Finding
Peak Workforce 4.5 million — total U.S. shipyard employment during WWII across naval and commercial yards[13]
Highest Cohort SMR SMR 575 — pleural mesothelioma in the Genoa/Fincantieri 55-year cohort (Merlo et al., 2018; n=3,984; PMID 30594195)[4]
U.S. Coast Guard Cohort SMR 5.07 — mesothelioma mortality (95% CI: 1.85–11.03; Courtice et al., 2007; n=4,702; PMID 17881470)[5]
Pearl Harbor Incidence 67.3 per million/year — mesothelioma incidence vs 5.8 statewide, an 11.6-fold increase (Kolonel et al., 1985; n=7,971; PMID 4016758)[6]
Highest Trade SMR SMR 1,703 — insulation workers in the Genoa cohort for pleural cancer (p < 0.05); painters SMR 1,436; caulkers SMR 1,135[4]
Historical Exposure Levels 5–100 f/cc — airborne fiber concentrations in below-deck spaces, 50–1,000× the current OSHA PEL of 0.1 f/cc[3][1]
Asbestos Products on Ships 300+ — distinct asbestos-containing products specified for U.S. Navy vessels from 1922 onward[9]
Asbestosis Prevalence 86% — of ship repair workers developed asbestosis, including bystander-exposed workers (CDC/NIOSH)[14]
Pleural Plaque Rate 86.7% — of Monfalcone shipyard workers showed pleural plaques at autopsy (Bianchi et al., 2000; 3,640 necropsies; PMID 10943078)[20]
Median Latency 42.8–50 years — from first exposure to mesothelioma diagnosis across Genoa and Monfalcone cohorts[4][17]
WWII Ship Production 2,710 Liberty ships + 531 Victory ships — plus 5,000+ merchant vessels and 75,000 Navy warships (1943–1944)[21]
Compensation $1–2.4 million — average mesothelioma settlement; $30 billion across 60+ trust funds; largest verdict $250 million[10][11][22]

How Were Shipyard Workers Exposed to Asbestos?

Documentation from Danziger & De Llano confirms that asbestos was integral to virtually every aspect of ship construction and repair from the early 1900s through the late 1970s.[23] Shipyards used asbestos for its fire resistance, heat insulation, and durability in marine environments where these properties were considered essential for vessel safety and operation. According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center research, over 300 distinct asbestos-containing products were specified for naval vessels, and commercial shipbuilders followed similar material standards.[2]

The U.S. Navy's first specification requiring asbestos in submarines dated to 1922, mandating South African chrysotile for gaskets, insulation, packing, and tape, with Transvaal amosite for lightweight high-insulation applications.[21] By 1939, the federal government classified asbestos as a critical material and began stockpiling. During World War II, President Roosevelt issued the 1942 Asbestos Conservation Order banning non-military asbestos use, prioritizing the mineral for naval and merchant ship construction.[9][21]

The primary exposure pathways for shipyard workers included direct handling of asbestos insulation during installation and removal, cutting and fitting asbestos gaskets for pipe flanges and valve connections, mixing and applying asbestos-containing spray coatings for fireproofing, sanding and grinding asbestos-containing paints and fillers, and demolition of existing asbestos installations during ship overhaul and repair operations.[24][25] According to Mesothelioma.net, pipe insulation—the most commonly encountered material—contained up to 90% chrysotile asbestos, while spray-on fireproofing contained up to 85% asbestos fibers and created dense, visible clouds of dust during application.[26]

Major product categories included pipe insulation and thermal lagging (applied to all steam lines, exhaust systems, boilers, turbines, and hot water piping), spray-on fireproofing (applied to bulkheads, decks, and structural components), gaskets and packing (used at every pipe flange, valve connection, and mechanical joint with 75–90% asbestos content), electrical insulation (wire insulation, bus bar insulation, switchboard panels), asbestos-cement panels (Transite used for pipes, panels, and structural elements), brake linings and clutch facings (used in shipboard cranes, winches, and machinery), deck tile and vinyl-asbestos flooring throughout living and working spaces, and joiner bulkhead systems with asbestos composite panels.[27][24][28]

"Growing up in Pasadena near the refineries, I saw firsthand what asbestos exposure did to workers like my dad. In the shipyards, men worked shoulder to shoulder in spaces no bigger than a closet, breathing dust that would kill them decades later. No one told them it was dangerous."
— Larry Gates, Client Advocate, Danziger & De Llano

Key manufacturers whose products were used extensively in shipbuilding included Johns-Manville (the largest asbestos product supplier, producing Navy vessel insulation, cement, and gaskets), Owens Corning/Fibreboard (insulation, roofing, and flooring materials), Pittsburgh Corning (UNIBESTOS block and pipe insulation), Eagle-Picher (insulation, gaskets, and cement for naval and commercial shipyards), Union Carbide (raw asbestos fiber supplier), and Garlock Sealing (marine gaskets and valve packing).[29][25] According to Danziger & De Llano, the Johns-Manville Trust (established 1988), Owens Corning Trust ($5 billion, established 2006), Pittsburgh Corning Trust (bankruptcy filed 2000), and Eagle-Picher Trust ($2.5 billion in liabilities) are among the major trust funds available to shipyard workers today.[10][30]

Which Shipyard Trades Faced the Highest Mesothelioma Risk?

The Genoa/Fincantieri cohort study provided the most detailed trade-specific mortality data ever compiled for shipyard workers, following 3,984 workers over 55 years. The results reveal a steep gradient of mesothelioma risk across all trades, with every occupation in the shipyard environment showing statistically significant excess mortality from pleural cancer:[4]

Trade SMR Pleural Cancer SMR Lung Cancer Risk Classification
Insulation Workers 1,703* 397* Extreme
Painters 1,436* 155 Extreme
Caulkers 1,135* 283* Extreme
Carpenters 918* 186 Very High
Smiths & Shipwrights 821* 167* Very High
Autogenous Welders 716* 171* Very High
Careeners 631* 148 High
Ironsmiths 615* 211* High
Electricians 570* 95 High
Plumbers & Coppersmiths 563* 122 High
Fitters 531* 141 High
Stakers 519* 179* High
Ship Demolishers 514* 129 High

Source: Merlo et al. (PMID 30594195), Genoa/Fincantieri 55-year cohort study. * indicates statistical significance at p < 0.05.

According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, the Genoa data demonstrate a critical point: even the lowest-risk trade in the shipyard (ship demolishers, SMR 514) faced mesothelioma mortality more than five times the expected rate.[2] Insulation workers at the top of the gradient died from pleural cancer at over 17 times the expected rate, while painters—who never directly handled asbestos—showed an SMR of 1,436, confirming that bystander exposure in confined shipyard spaces was nearly as lethal as direct asbestos handling.[4]

At the Devonport Dockyard in the United Kingdom, above-average mesothelioma rates were similarly observed among laggers, boilermakers, painters, welders and burners, and shipwrights, with 96 total mesothelioma deaths associated with dockyard work.[31] The Monfalcone shipyard studies in Italy confirmed that plumbers (11 mesothelioma cases), carpenter-shipwrights (10 cases), and welders (6 cases) were the most frequently affected trades among diagnosed workers.[17]

"What many people don't understand is that you didn't have to be an insulator to get massive asbestos exposure in a shipyard. The Genoa data proves it—painters had an SMR of 1,436. Electricians, 570. Every trade in that environment was at extreme risk because they all shared the same contaminated air in confined spaces."
— Rod De Llano, Founding Partner, Danziger & De Llano

What Role Did Confined Spaces Play in Shipyard Asbestos Exposure?

The confined nature of ship interiors dramatically amplified asbestos exposure for all shipyard trades. According to Danziger & De Llano's historical analysis, below-deck spaces including engine rooms, boiler rooms, pipe chases, and ammunition magazines created enclosed environments where asbestos fibers accumulated to concentrations 10–50 times higher than open-air measurements.[32] Research from Mesothelioma Lawyer Center documents that these spaces often measured just a few feet across, with workers crouching or lying in positions that placed their faces inches from deteriorating asbestos insulation.[2]

Historical industrial hygiene data quantify this amplification effect. Studies of maritime shipping vessels between 1978 and 1992 found that engine room ambient concentrations averaged 0.010 f/cc (95th percentile 0.068 f/cc) during passive conditions when no insulation work was occurring—already 2.5 times higher than the 0.004 f/cc measured in living areas.[33] During active installation or removal of asbestos insulation, concentrations in below-deck spaces spiked to 5–100 f/cc or higher, exceeding the current OSHA permissible exposure limit by 50- to 1,000-fold.[1][3] A U.S. Navy assessment of asbestos concentrations in engine room atmospheres confirmed that the large quantities of asbestos used in ship construction since WWII created persistent contamination in enclosed spaces even when no active disturbance was occurring.[34]

Ventilation during the peak exposure era (1940s–1970s) was typically inadequate or nonexistent. According to Mesothelioma.net, ships under construction or repair often had no functioning ventilation systems, and portable blowers—when available—frequently redistributed asbestos fibers rather than removing them.[34] The problem was compounded by multiple trades working simultaneously in adjacent compartments. According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, an insulator applying asbestos lagging in one section of a ship generated fibers that traveled through ventilation ducts, open hatches, and structural openings to contaminate entire sections of the vessel, exposing every worker aboard regardless of their specific trade.[27]

Multiple landmark epidemiological studies spanning four countries and decades of follow-up have quantified the devastating toll of asbestos exposure among shipyard workers. According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center documentation, this body of research represents some of the strongest occupational disease evidence ever compiled for any single industry.[8]

Study Location Cohort Size Follow-Up Key Finding
Merlo et al. (2018) Genoa, Italy 3,984 55 years SMR 575 pleural mesothelioma[4]
Courtice et al. (2007) Baltimore, USA 4,702 51 years SMR 5.07 mesothelioma[5]
Kolonel et al. (1985) Pearl Harbor, USA 7,971 29 years 11.6-fold mesothelioma increase[6]
Bianchi et al. (2000) Monfalcone, Italy 3,640 necropsies 19 years 86.7% shipyard workers had plaques[20]
Rossiter/Coles (1980) Devonport, UK Population-based Decades 96 mesothelioma deaths[31]
Sandén et al. (1992) Norway 3,893 15 years 7.3-fold mesothelioma excess[7]

Genoa/Fincantieri Shipyard (PMID 30594195): The most comprehensive long-term study followed 3,984 workers at the Fincantieri shipyard over 55 years (1960–2014). The study documented an SMR of 575 for pleural mesothelioma and 2,277 for asbestosis (over 22 times expected). Lung cancer deaths attributable to asbestos exposure were estimated at 22.6% of all lung cancer deaths in the cohort. Pleural cancer mortality rates continued to rise across the entire follow-up period, increasing steeply during the final 25 years. An earlier study of the same workforce (PMID 11598985) documented significantly increased SMRs for all causes, all cancers, liver, larynx, lung, pleural, and bladder cancers.[4][35]

U.S. Coast Guard Shipyard (PMID 17881470): This retrospective cohort followed 4,702 workers employed at the Coast Guard Shipyard in Baltimore, Maryland (1950–1964) through 2001. Researchers documented SMR 5.07 for mesothelioma (95% CI: 1.85–11.03), SMR 1.26 for lung cancer (95% CI: 1.12–1.41), and SMR 18.57 for asbestosis. A subsequent analysis (PMID 28166467) found all five substances studied were independently associated with mesothelioma mortality, though excesses appeared driven primarily by asbestos.[5][36]

Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard (PMID 4016758): A retrospective cohort of 7,971 male workers followed for up to 29 years documented mesothelioma incidence of 67.3 per million men per year, compared with a statewide rate of 5.8 per million—an 11.6-fold increase. The study concluded that the long-term relative increase in risk for mesothelioma may be even greater than that for bronchogenic carcinoma.[6]

Monfalcone Shipyard Necropsies (PMID 1855931; PMID 10943078): A series of 3,640 consecutive necropsies at Monfalcone Hospital in northeastern Italy (1979–1998) demonstrated that asbestos exposure was ubiquitous in the shipyard community. Among male residents, 73.6% showed pleural plaques; among shipyard workers specifically, 86.7% showed plaques with high asbestos body burdens in lung tissue. A study of mesothelioma cases among workers hired in 1950–1959 found mean latency periods close to 50 years from first exposure.[37][20][17]

Devonport Dockyard (PMID 7447497): At the Royal Devonport Dockyard in the UK, 96 mesothelioma deaths were associated with dockyard work, with above-average rates among laggers, boilermakers, painters, welders, and shipwrights. A nine-year follow-up study found that despite near-complete protection from asbestos after 1966, radiographic abnormalities continued to increase among more heavily exposed workers, confirming the progressive nature of asbestos disease.[31][38]

Norwegian Shipyard Cohort (PMID 1572439): This prospective study of 3,893 workers, mainly exposed to chrysotile, found no increased lung cancer risk 7–15 years after exposure ceased but documented 11 observed mesotheliomas versus 1.5 expected—a 7.3-fold excess. According to Danziger & De Llano, this finding is critically important because it demonstrates that chrysotile exposure alone—not just amphibole asbestos—carries significant mesothelioma risk, which manufacturers long denied.[19]

Critical Finding: NIOSH research established that 86% of ship repair workers in studied cohorts developed asbestosis—including workers who never directly handled asbestos materials. Shipyard workers were found to be 15 times more likely to die from asbestosis than the general population. A nested case-control study in the shipyard industry confirmed that even non-asbestos job classifications were independently associated with mesothelioma risk, underscoring the pervasive nature of exposure in the shipyard environment.[14][39]

How Did World War II Create a Shipyard Asbestos Crisis?

World War II transformed American shipyards from modest industrial operations into the largest manufacturing enterprises in human history. According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center's historical research, at peak wartime production the U.S. employed approximately 4.5 million shipyard workers across dozens of naval and commercial facilities—a workforce expansion that coincided exactly with peak asbestos use in marine construction.[13][23]

Ship Production

The scale of wartime production was staggering. American yards built 2,710 Liberty ships between 1941 and 1945 across 18 shipyards—averaging three ships every two days. An additional 531 Victory ships were produced between 1944 and 1946, superseding the Liberty design with faster turbine power. In total, American shipyards produced thousands of merchant vessels and warships at unprecedented scale during 1943 and 1944.[21]

Build times dropped dramatically under wartime urgency. Liberty ship construction fell from approximately 250 days and 1.1 million labor hours at the beginning of 1942 to less than 50 days and roughly 500,000 labor hours by end of 1943. The most productive Kaiser yards achieved approximately 300,000 labor hours per vessel, with Kaiser-operated facilities producing nearly 1,500 ships—27% of all tonnage built by the Maritime Commission during the war.[23][13]

Shipyard Peak Employment Location
Brooklyn Navy Yard 70,000 Brooklyn, NY
Mare Island Naval Shipyard 46,000 Vallejo, CA
Norfolk Naval Shipyard 43,000 Portsmouth, VA
Kaiser Shipyards (7 yards) ~250,000 combined OR, CA

Women Workers and Asbestos

The wartime workforce included a significant proportion of women. National statistics from 1943 show that women in shipyards increased from 6.48% to 13.3% of the total workforce between March and year-end. Total female employment in the U.S. rose from 10.8 million in 1941 to 18 million by 1944. At Kaiser shipyards, women comprised 27% of workers by 1944, though more than half performed clerical work and only 2.8% of pipefitters and machinists were female.[13][34] According to Danziger & De Llano, women worked as testers, burners, electricians, painters, stock clerks, drill press operators, shipfitters, and welders—facing identical asbestos exposure but receiving even less safety training than male counterparts.[1]

Wartime Asbestos Consumption

U.S. asbestos consumption averaged 783 million pounds per year during WWII (1940–1945), compared to 197 million pounds in the Depression year of 1932. According to Mesothelioma.net, consumption exceeded 1,400 million pounds annually during the early Cold War rearmament and did not decrease until the mid-1970s—creating over three decades of peak exposure for shipyard workers.[9][21]

"The tragedy of wartime shipyard exposure is that these workers built the arsenal that won World War II, and in return they were exposed to a material their employers knew was dangerous. Corporate documents show asbestos manufacturers understood the cancer risk as early as the 1930s but said nothing."
— Paul Danziger, Founding Partner, Danziger & De Llano

How Does Bystander and Secondary Exposure Affect Shipyard Families?

One of the most devastating aspects of shipyard asbestos exposure is its reach far beyond the workers who directly handled asbestos materials. According to Danziger & De Llano, bystander exposure—contamination of workers in adjacent trades who never personally installed or removed asbestos—accounts for a significant percentage of shipyard-related mesothelioma cases.[32] The NIOSH finding that 86% of ship repair workers developed asbestosis including those who never directly handled asbestos underscores the pervasive nature of contamination in shipyard environments.[14]

Take-Home Exposure Evidence

Secondary or "take-home" exposure extended the risk of mesothelioma to shipyard workers' families. A landmark study of 274 wives of Los Angeles County shipyard workers—who were 20 or more years from initial hiring—found radiographic evidence of asbestosis in a significant proportion. The same study documented asbestosis in 7.6% of 79 sons and 2.1% of 140 daughters of these workers, none of whom had any occupational asbestos exposure.[40] According to Mesothelioma.net, a meta-analysis of domestic asbestos exposure studies calculated a summary relative risk estimate of 5.02 (95% CI: 2.48+) for mesothelioma among household members of asbestos workers—a five-fold increase in cancer risk from laundering contaminated clothing and routine household contact.[15][16]

In the Monfalcone shipyard studies, a female canteen employee with mesothelioma had a history of domestic exposure from cleaning the work clothes of her husband and son, both occupationally exposed at the shipyard. An Italian national study documented 34 women with mesothelioma who had cleaned the work clothes of occupationally exposed family members as their only identified exposure pathway.[17][2]

Courts have increasingly recognized employer liability for take-home asbestos exposure from shipyards. According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, in Quisenberry v. Huntington Ingalls, the Virginia Supreme Court ruled that employers can be held legally responsible for mesothelioma deaths among family members exposed through contaminated work clothing—a case involving a woman who had laundered her father's Newport News Shipyard clothes since 1954 and was diagnosed with pleural mesothelioma in 2013.[41][15]

In California, the Supreme Court held in Kesner v. Superior Court that the duty to protect from take-home exposure extends to members of a worker's household. Multiple lawsuits against Avondale Shipyard in Louisiana alleged the company was aware of asbestos dangers but failed to protect workers or their families, and a federal court rejected the shipyard's federal immunity defense, allowing take-home exposure cases to proceed.[2][15]

Family Members May Qualify for Compensation: Spouses, children, and other household members who developed mesothelioma from secondary (take-home) asbestos exposure may be eligible for the same compensation as directly exposed workers. According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, courts have consistently recognized secondary exposure claims, and multiple trust funds explicitly include provisions for household exposure claims.[12][16]

How Does OSHA Regulate Asbestos in Shipyards Today?

The evolution of asbestos regulation in American shipyards spans over five decades, from no protections at all to one of the most detailed occupational health standards ever issued. Before 1970, shipyard workers had no federal workplace exposure limits despite medical literature linking asbestos to severe respiratory illness as early as the 1930s.[3][42]

Year Action Standard
1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act signed Created OSHA
1971 First OSHA asbestos PEL established 5 f/cc (8-hr TWA); Peak 10 f/cc
1972 PEL lowered 2 f/cc (8-hr TWA)
1976 Emergency Temporary Standard 0.5 f/cc (8-hr TWA)
1986 Final rule revision 0.2 f/cc (8-hr TWA)
1993 29 CFR 1915.1001 established (58 FR 35553) 0.1 f/cc TWA; Excursion 1.0 f/cc/30 min
2023 Extension of information collection requirements OMB 1218-0195; 255 respondents

The dedicated shipyard asbestos standard—29 CFR 1915.1001—was established on July 1, 1993, recognizing that maritime work environments present unique hazards requiring specific regulatory protections beyond those applicable to general industry or construction.[43] Key provisions include mandatory initial exposure monitoring before any asbestos-related work, regulated work areas with warning signage and restricted access, engineering controls including local exhaust ventilation and wet methods, respiratory protection programs, medical surveillance including chest X-rays and pulmonary function testing, worker training and hazard communication, and detailed recordkeeping requirements.[43][3]

According to Danziger & De Llano, these current limits represent a 50-fold reduction from the original 1971 PEL—yet even the original standard of 5 f/cc was at the low end of what shipyard workers actually experienced during the peak exposure era, when unregulated concentrations routinely reached 100 f/cc or higher in confined below-deck spaces.[1] OSHA's 2023 extension of information collection requirements for the shipyard standard confirms ongoing regulatory oversight, with 255 affected respondents reporting compliance data.[44]

Current Risk Warning: Despite modern regulations, shipyard workers remain at risk from asbestos in older vessels. According to OSHA, any vessel constructed before 1980 should be presumed to contain asbestos materials. Workers performing repair, maintenance, or demolition on these vessels must comply with all requirements of 29 CFR 1915.1001. OSHA estimates that 18 shipyards employing 985 workers are directly affected by the standard for ship repair operations.[43][44]

Shipyard asbestos cases have produced some of the largest verdicts and settlements in mesothelioma litigation history. According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, juries have consistently awarded substantial damages reflecting the severity of exposure and the documented knowledge that manufacturers and shipyard operators suppressed.[41]

Case Amount Details
Brooklyn Navy Yard Workers $190 million Five workers with mesothelioma from years of exposure[41]
California Shipyard Worker $75 million Multi-defendant verdict; extensive documentation of corporate negligence[41]
Washington Navy Veteran $40 million Exposed aboard ships; systemic failures in military contracting[41]
Oregon Shipyard Worker (2025) $33 million Exposure to asbestos-containing gaskets and packing[12]
Florida Shipyard Mechanic $18 million Exposed to asbestos brake linings and insulation[12]
USX/Western Pipe & Steel $6.5 million Childhood household exposure from shipyard worker parent[11]

According to Danziger & De Llano, average mesothelioma settlements range from $1 million to $2.4 million, with some trial verdicts exceeding $30 million. The largest single-plaintiff mesothelioma verdict in U.S. history was $250 million.[22][11]

Jones Act vs. LHWCA

Shipyard workers' compensation options depend on their specific employment classification. According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, the key distinction is between seamen covered under the Jones Act (46 U.S.C. § 30104) and shore-based workers covered under the Longshore and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (33 U.S.C. § 901 et seq.):[45][46]

Feature Jones Act LHWCA
Covered Workers Seamen spending significant time aboard vessels Shipyard workers, longshoremen, harbor workers
Legal Basis 46 U.S.C. § 30104 33 U.S.C. § 901 et seq.
Remedy Negligence lawsuits + unseaworthiness Workers' compensation (no-fault)
Key Advantage Full damages including pain/suffering Guaranteed benefits without proving fault

What Compensation Is Available for Shipyard Workers with Mesothelioma?

Shipyard workers diagnosed with mesothelioma have access to multiple compensation sources, many of them unique to the maritime industry. According to Danziger & De Llano, comprehensive legal representation typically identifies 5–8 separate compensation streams for qualified shipyard workers, with total recovery averaging $1–2.4 million for mesothelioma cases.[22][11]

Asbestos Trust Fund Claims: According to Mesothelioma.net, over $30 billion remains available across 60+ active asbestos bankruptcy trust funds established by former asbestos manufacturers and distributors.[47] Many of the largest trusts—including the Johns-Manville Trust, Owens Corning Trust, and Pittsburgh Corning Trust—were created by companies whose products were extensively used in shipbuilding. According to Danziger & De Llano, individual trust fund claims can yield $30,000–$350,000 per trust depending on disease severity and exposure documentation, with expedited review available for mesothelioma cases.[10][30]

Personal Injury Lawsuits: According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, shipyard workers can file personal injury lawsuits against manufacturers of asbestos products who remain solvent and have not entered bankruptcy.[48] These lawsuits typically produce the largest individual recoveries, with jury verdicts for shipyard workers ranging from $6.5 million to over $190 million in documented cases.[41]

Longshore and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (LHWCA): Shipyard workers are covered under this federal program providing compensation for maritime workers injured on navigable waters or in adjoining areas including shipyards, terminals, and docks. According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, LHWCA benefits include medical expense coverage for all reasonable treatment, disability payments at two-thirds of average weekly wages, and death benefits for surviving dependents.[45]

VA Disability Benefits: According to Danziger & De Llano, shipyard workers who served in the military may qualify for VA disability benefits, including monthly compensation, free medical care at VA facilities, and Special Monthly Compensation for homebound or aid-and-attendance status.[49] The VA recognizes mesothelioma as a service-connected disability for veterans with documented military asbestos exposure.[50]

Workers' Compensation: State workers' compensation programs provide additional benefits for occupationally-caused diseases, though coverage varies by state and may be limited for conditions with long latency periods.[51] According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, an experienced attorney can help navigate the interplay between LHWCA coverage, state workers' compensation, and civil litigation to maximize total recovery.[52]

Is Shipyard Asbestos Exposure Still a Risk Today?

Despite modern regulations, asbestos exposure in shipyard environments remains an active concern for workers worldwide. According to OSHA, any vessel constructed before 1980 should be presumed to contain asbestos materials, and workers performing repair, maintenance, or demolition on these vessels must comply with all requirements of 29 CFR 1915.1001.[43] All ships delivered before 1975 contain extensive asbestos insulation, and ships delivered between 1975 and 1978 contain asbestos in the form of insulating cement on machinery casings. Many such vessels remain in active service, in reserve fleets, or awaiting disposal.[46][44]

Global Ship-Breaking Industry

The global ship-breaking industry presents severe ongoing risks, particularly at facilities in South Asia. According to Mesothelioma.net, the world's largest ship-breaking yard at Alang, India employs an estimated 55,000 workers who dismantle vessels directly on the beach without adequate containment, exposing them to asbestos-laden materials, hydrocarbons, and other hazardous substances.[34][53] Similar conditions prevail at ship-breaking sites in Chattogram, Bangladesh and Gadani, Pakistan, with 447 reported worker deaths across Asian yards over a 13-year period.[34]

A matched-cohort study of Taiwanese ship-breaking workers documented statistically significant increases in overall cancer risk (adjusted hazard ratio 1.71), esophageal cancer (aHR 2.31), and trachea/bronchus/lung cancer (aHR 3.08), with dose-dependent relationships to asbestos exposure.[54] According to Danziger & De Llano, these international findings underscore that shipyard asbestos exposure remains a global public health crisis—not merely a historical American problem.[1]

What Is the International Scope of Shipyard Mesothelioma?

The connection between shipyard work and mesothelioma is documented across every major shipbuilding nation, with consistently elevated mortality demonstrating that the risk is not unique to any single country's industrial practices.

United Kingdom

According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, the British mesothelioma death rate has been described as the highest in the world, with over 2,500 deaths annually—more than road traffic fatalities.[8] The South West of England is one of the most affected areas, driven by the industrial history of shipbuilding at Devonport and Chatham dockyards. A population-based study found that having one or more dockyards in a district was associated with significantly higher mesothelioma mortality, with a rate ratio of 1.41 (95% CI: 1.35–1.48) for men in dockyard districts during 2002–2008. The UK banned blue and brown asbestos in 1985 and all asbestos in 1999.[55][31]

Italy

Italy has one of the highest mesothelioma rates globally, driven by its extensive shipbuilding industry. The Italian National Mesothelioma Registry (ReNaM) documented 466 cases of malignant mesothelioma exclusively related to merchant or military navy employment from 1993 to 2018, representing 1.8% of all patients with defined exposure.[56] The Multicentre Italian Study on the Etiology of Mesothelioma (MISEM) found that mesothelioma risk increased by almost 30% per fiber/mL-year of asbestos exposure (OR 1.28, 95% CI: 1.16–1.42), with harbors containing shipyards showing the highest attributable proportion for mesothelioma—over 90% in the 0–64 age group among men.[57]

Japan

Japan ranks third globally in fatalities from occupational asbestos exposure, behind the United States and China. Mesothelioma deaths rose from 500 in 1995 to 1,504 by 2015. Construction and shipyard workers have been identified as the highest-risk groups. According to Mesothelioma.net, lung cancer and mesothelioma among Japanese shipbuilders have been documented since the 1980s at naval dockyards in Kure and Yokosuka, with latency periods of 43–49 years from first exposure. The rising incidence of mesothelioma in Japan is expected to peak between 2030 and 2039.[58][59]

South Korea

Shipbuilding and repair companies in South Korea were concentrated in Ulsan, Busan, Jinhae, and Geoje in the Dongnam industrial belt. Mesothelioma cases increased from 48 in 1998 to 55 new cases in 2007, with deaths rising from 16 in 1999 to 57 in 2006. South Korea banned asbestos in 2009, and at least 2,184 victims have suffered damages since 2011. Workers' compensation data showed that approved mesothelioma claims were most common in the Busan-Ulsan-Gyeongnam region—the center of Korean shipbuilding.[60][61]

Population surveys from northern Europe indicate that 15–30% of the male population has ever had occupational exposure to asbestos, mainly in construction or shipyards. A systematic review and meta-analysis of mesothelioma among seamen found a pooled SMR of 2.11 (95% CI: 1.70–2.62), with 235 observed cases versus 115.6 expected across 10 studies. According to Danziger & De Llano, these international findings confirm that shipyard asbestos exposure remains one of the most well-documented occupational carcinogen exposures in medical history.[19][62]

How Do Shipyard Workers File Asbestos Claims?

Filing asbestos claims as a shipyard worker requires detailed documentation of exposure history across what may have been multiple shipyards, multiple trades, and decades of employment. According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, the first and most critical step is assembling a comprehensive work history that identifies every shipyard facility, specific job duties, time periods of employment, and asbestos products encountered.[63]

Documentation from Danziger & De Llano identifies key evidence sources for shipyard workers: union records from organizations like the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, the United Association of Plumbers and Pipefitters, or the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; Social Security earnings records showing shipyard employment periods; Navy and Coast Guard personnel records for military service at naval shipyards; DD-214 forms documenting military occupational specialties; coworker affidavits from colleagues who can attest to working conditions; and medical records confirming asbestos-related disease diagnosis.[1][63]

"Shipyard cases are among the most complex we handle because workers often passed through multiple facilities over a career spanning 20 or 30 years. But they're also among the strongest cases because exposure documentation in shipyards tends to be extensive—Navy records, union records, industrial hygiene surveys, and coworker testimony all paint a compelling picture."
— Paul Danziger, Founding Partner, Danziger & De Llano

According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, statutes of limitations for mesothelioma claims typically range from 1–6 years from the date of diagnosis, varying by state.[18] The "discovery rule" applied in most jurisdictions means the clock starts when the disease is diagnosed or reasonably should have been discovered—not from the date of original exposure. This is critically important for shipyard workers because mesothelioma's median latency of 42.8 years means diagnosis often occurs decades after the last exposure.[8][4]


⚠ Statute of Limitations Warning: Filing deadlines vary by state from 1-6 years from diagnosis. Texas allows 2 years from diagnosis or discovery. Contact an attorney immediately to preserve your rights.

Frequently Asked Questions

How many shipyard workers have been diagnosed with mesothelioma?

Precise nationwide figures are difficult to determine because mesothelioma registries do not always record occupational history. However, according to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, shipyard workers represent one of the largest occupational groups in asbestos litigation, reflecting their extreme exposure levels and the massive workforce employed during the peak exposure era.[2] The Italian National Mesothelioma Registry documented 466 mesothelioma cases exclusively related to maritime employment from 1993 to 2018, and the Genoa shipyard cohort alone documented mesothelioma deaths at 5.75 times the expected rate over 55 years.[56][4]

According to Danziger & De Llano, the latency period between first asbestos exposure and mesothelioma diagnosis typically ranges from 20–50 years.[19] The Genoa shipyard study found a median latency of 42.8 years, and the Monfalcone studies reported mean latency periods close to 50 years among workers hired in 1950–1959. Japanese shipyard workers at Kure showed latency periods of 43–49 years. These findings confirm that mesothelioma continues to emerge decades after exposure cessation, with the most heavily exposed 1940s–1960s cohorts still developing disease today.[4][17][59]

Can shipyard workers file claims decades after their last exposure?

Yes. According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, the statute of limitations for mesothelioma claims begins at the time of diagnosis—not at the time of exposure.[18] This "discovery rule" recognizes that mesothelioma's extremely long latency makes it impossible for workers to file claims before they know they are sick. Trust fund claims also remain available regardless of when exposure occurred, as long as the claim is filed within applicable deadlines after diagnosis.[64]

What types of asbestos were used in shipbuilding?

According to Mesothelioma.net, all six recognized types of asbestos were used in shipbuilding to varying degrees.[24] Chrysotile (white asbestos) was the most common, used in pipe insulation, gaskets, and fireproofing. Amosite (brown asbestos) was extensively used in thermal insulation and cement sheets. Crocidolite (blue asbestos) was used in spray-on coatings and is considered the most dangerous fiber type. According to the EPA, all forms of asbestos are classified as known human carcinogens. Notably, the Norwegian shipyard cohort study demonstrated significant mesothelioma excess even among workers mainly exposed to chrysotile, refuting manufacturer claims that chrysotile was safe.[65][7]

Are modern shipyard workers still at risk of asbestos exposure?

Yes. According to OSHA, any vessel constructed before 1980 should be presumed to contain asbestos materials.[43] Workers performing repair, maintenance, or decommissioning of older ships remain at risk. The global ship-breaking industry, particularly at facilities in South Asia, continues to expose tens of thousands of workers to legacy asbestos without adequate protections. A matched-cohort study of Taiwanese ship-breaking workers documented a 71% increase in overall cancer risk (aHR 1.71) and a 208% increase in lung cancer risk (aHR 3.08).[46][54]

What is the LHWCA and how does it help shipyard workers?

The Longshore and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (LHWCA) is a federal workers' compensation program covering maritime employees including shipyard workers. According to MesotheliomaAttorney.com, it provides benefits including medical expense coverage, disability payments at two-thirds of average weekly wages, and death benefits for survivors.[45] Unlike state workers' compensation, the LHWCA is administered at the federal level under 33 U.S.C. § 901 et seq. Separately, seamen who spent significant time aboard vessels may pursue Jones Act claims (46 U.S.C. § 30104), which allow negligence lawsuits with potentially larger damages including pain and suffering.[45][46]

Do family members of shipyard workers qualify for compensation?

According to Danziger & De Llano, family members who developed mesothelioma from secondary (take-home) exposure may qualify for the same types of compensation as directly exposed workers, including trust fund claims, personal injury lawsuits, and wrongful death claims.[16] Research documents a 5-fold increase in mesothelioma risk among household contacts of asbestos workers. Courts have consistently recognized employer liability, including the Virginia Supreme Court ruling in Quisenberry v. Huntington Ingalls holding shipyards responsible for mesothelioma deaths among workers' family members exposed through contaminated clothing.[15][41]

What documentation do I need for a shipyard asbestos claim?

According to Mesothelioma Lawyer Center, essential documentation includes medical records confirming an asbestos-related diagnosis, employment records from each shipyard, union membership records, Social Security earnings records, military service records (DD-214) if applicable, and statements from coworkers who can verify working conditions.[63] An experienced mesothelioma attorney can help obtain records from unions, government agencies, and former employers that individual claimants may not be able to access on their own.[1]

Naval Shipyards:

Commercial Shipyards:

Related Occupations:

Resources:

Quick Statistics

  • Norwegian chrysotile-only cohort — 11 mesotheliomas observed vs 1.5 expected (7.3-fold excess), demonstrating chrysotile-alone mesothelioma risk that manufacturers long denied was possible[7]
  • Italian national mesothelioma registry — 466 cases exclusively linked to maritime employment from 1993–2018, representing 1.8% of all patients with defined occupational exposure[56]
  • British mesothelioma death toll — over 2,500 deaths per year nationally, exceeding road traffic fatalities, with dockyard districts showing 41% higher mesothelioma rates (RR 1.41, 95% CI: 1.35–1.48)[55]
  • Genoa asbestosis SMR — 2,277 for asbestosis (over 22 times expected), with 22.6% of all cohort lung cancer deaths attributable to asbestos[4]
  • South Korean shipyard belt — mesothelioma cases rose from 48 in 1998 to 55 in 2007, concentrated in the Busan-Ulsan-Gyeongnam shipbuilding region; 2,184+ asbestos victims since 2011[60][61]
  • Japanese shipyard latency — mesothelioma deaths at Kure and Yokosuka naval dockyards showed 43–49 year latency periods, with national incidence expected to peak between 2030 and 2039[59]
  • Taiwanese ship-breaking cancer risk — adjusted hazard ratio of 1.71 for overall cancer, 2.31 for esophageal cancer, and 3.08 for lung cancer in a matched-cohort study of ship-breaking workers[54]
  • WWII asbestos consumption — U.S. usage averaged 783 million pounds per year during 1940–1945, peaking above 1,400 million pounds annually during Cold War rearmament[21][9]
  • Seamen meta-analysis — pooled SMR of 2.11 (95% CI: 1.70–2.62) for mesothelioma across 10 international studies with 235 observed cases vs 115.6 expected[62]
  • Alang ship-breaking yard — an estimated 55,000 workers dismantle vessels on open beaches without containment, with 447 reported deaths across Asian yards over 13 years[34][53]

Get Help Today

If you or a loved one worked in a shipyard and has been diagnosed with mesothelioma, you may be entitled to significant compensation from multiple sources including trust funds, personal injury lawsuits, LHWCA benefits, and VA disability benefits. According to Danziger & De Llano, the firm's client advocates—including Larry Gates, whose father died from occupational mesothelioma—provide compassionate, experienced support throughout the legal and medical process.[66][11]

For a free case evaluation, contact Danziger & De Llano or visit MesotheliomaLawyersNearMe.com for a confidential assessment of your legal options. You can also explore patient resources at Mesothelioma.net and legal information at Mesothelioma Lawyer Center.

Call (855) 699-5441 for a free, confidential case evaluation. There is no cost unless we recover compensation for you.


Free, Confidential Case Evaluation

Call (855) 699-5441 or visit dandell.com/contact-us

No upfront fees • Experienced representation • National practice


⚠ Statute of Limitations Warning: Filing deadlines vary by state from 1-6 years from diagnosis. Texas allows 2 years from diagnosis or discovery. Contact an attorney immediately to preserve your rights.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Asbestos Exposure, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Shipyard Asbestos Exposure, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Asbestos, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 Mortality among workers exposed to asbestos at the shipyard of Genoa, Italy: a 55 years follow-up, PubMed (PMID 30594195)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Mortality among Coast Guard Shipyard workers: a retrospective cohort study, PubMed (PMID 17881470)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Cancer occurrence in shipyard workers exposed to asbestos in Hawaii, PubMed (PMID 4016758)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Risk of lung cancer and mesothelioma after cessation of asbestos exposure: a prospective cohort study of shipyard workers, PubMed (PMID 1572439)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Mesothelioma Diagnosis, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Navy Asbestos Exposure, Mesothelioma.net
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Mesothelioma Asbestos Trust Fund Payouts, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Mesothelioma Settlements, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Mesothelioma Lawsuit Settlements, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Asbestos History, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Asbestos, CDC/NIOSH
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Secondhand Asbestos Exposure, Mesothelioma.net
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Secondhand Asbestos Exposure, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Mesothelioma among shipyard workers in Monfalcone, Italy, PMC
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Mesothelioma Statute of Limitations, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 How Long Does Mesothelioma Take to Develop?, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Asbestos exposure in a shipyard area, northeastern Italy, PubMed (PMID 10943078)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Asbestos and Ship-Building: Fatal Consequences, PMC
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Asbestos Lawsuits and Payouts, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Asbestos on Naval Ships, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Asbestos Products, Mesothelioma.net
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Asbestos Pipe Insulation, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  26. ↑ Asbestos Insulation, Mesothelioma.net
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Navy Asbestos Exposure, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  28. ↑ Sailors and the Risk of Asbestos-Related Cancer, PMC
  29. ↑ Asbestos Companies, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Pittsburgh Corning Asbestos Trust, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Mesothelioma risks in a naval dockyard, PubMed (PMID 7447497)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Mesothelioma Risk: Workers Most at Risk, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  33. ↑ Airborne concentrations of asbestos onboard maritime shipping vessels, PubMed (PMID 18468991)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 Shipyard Asbestos Exposure, Mesothelioma.net
  35. ↑ A historical cohort mortality study among shipyard workers in Genoa, Italy, PubMed (PMID 11598985)
  36. ↑ Mortality among Coast Guard Shipyard workers: a retrospective cohort study of specific exposures, PubMed (PMID 28166467)
  37. ↑ Exposure to Asbestos in Monfalcone, Italy: A Necropsy-Based Study, PubMed (PMID 1855931)
  38. ↑ Nine-year follow-up study of men exposed to asbestos in Devonport Dockyard, PubMed (PMID 7241458)
  39. ↑ Cancer Risks in Shipyard Workers Exposed to Asbestos, CDC/NIOSH
  40. ↑ Asbestos disease in family contacts of shipyard workers, PMC
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.6 Largest Asbestos Lawsuit Settlements, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  42. ↑ When Did Asbestos Manufacturers Know?, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 29 CFR 1915.1001 Asbestos, OSHA Shipyard Employment Standard
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Asbestos in Shipyards Standard; Extension of Information Collection, OSHA Federal Register, March 31, 2023
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 Longshore and Harbor Workers Compensation Act, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 OSHA Asbestos Laws, Mesothelioma.net
  47. ↑ Mesothelioma Trust Funds, Mesothelioma.net
  48. ↑ Mesothelioma Settlements, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  49. ↑ Veterans Asbestos Exposure, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  50. ↑ Veterans Asbestos Exposure, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  51. ↑ Workers Compensation, Danziger & De Llano LLP
  52. ↑ Workers Compensation for Asbestos, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 India's wide use of asbestos brings dire warnings, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ)
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Cancer Attributable to Asbestos Exposure in Shipbreaking Workers: A Matched-Cohort Study, PMC
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Mesothelioma mortality in Great Britain, PubMed (PMID 31662422)
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Mesothelioma Risk Among Maritime Workers: Data From the Italian Mesothelioma Register (ReNaM), PMC
  57. ↑ Pleural mesothelioma risk by industry and occupation: results from MISEM, PMC
  58. ↑ Occupational Exposure to Asbestos, Mesothelioma.net
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Pleural malignant mesothelioma patients in Kure, PubMed (PMID 2914565)
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Asbestos exposure and malignant mesothelioma in Korea, PubMed (PMID 19827900)
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Asbestos-related disease claims in Korea Workers Compensation 2011-2015, PMC
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Mesothelioma among seamen: a systematic review and meta-analysis, European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 2024; 33(5):438-447
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 Asbestos Lawsuit Evidence, Mesothelioma Lawyer Center
  64. ↑ Asbestos Trust Funds, MesotheliomaAttorney.com
  65. ↑ Asbestos, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
  66. ↑ Larry Gates, Danziger & De Llano LLP
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